Supporting Scotland's Transition - Land Use and Agriculture: Technical Supporting Document

1.4 Environment and adaptation

Land use impacts and benefits

The way we use land in Scotland can have a significant impact on our environment. In 2022, 19.5% of Scotland’s total greenhouse gas emissions were attributed to land use and agriculture.^[74]

Agriculture

Most of Scotland's land area is used for agriculture. Agriculture impacts the environment, climate change and biodiversity in both positive and negative ways. Some farm practices can contribute positively to natural flood management, carbon capture, soil management and biodiversity. However, some farm practices also have negative impacts on soil and water quality, biodiversity, erosion, and greenhouse gas emissions.

In broad terms, the impacts of agriculture on biodiversity are largely a result of the historical move from low input-low output agricultural systems towards agricultural intensification. The evidence suggests that a number of changes that address the drivers of biodiversity decline from agriculture are needed. These could include a move to farming practices that promote high diversity, nature rich, high soil carbon, low intensity methods to address the direct impacts on biodiversity, all whilst sustaining high quality food production. There are also broader actions needed to increase the spatial extent of nature networks and improve overall ecosystem health and functioning so that ecosystems are connected and more resilient to other pressures (e.g. climate change).^[75]

It is estimated that there is the potential to store an additional 60 mega tonnes of carbon in Scottish top-soils under grassland soils and 88 mega tonnes of carbon in top-soils under arable land. But there is also the risk that up to 112 mega tonnes of stored soil organic carbon could be lost. ^[76] Scottish soils generally have high soil organic carbon contents, so it may be difficult to further increase the carbon content of Scottish soils under current land use practices.

Climate change is also a severe risk to the agricultural sector. The Farm Advisory Service notes that summers have become hotter and drier, winters milder and wetter, and heavy rainfall events have increased in frequency. Extreme weather events have become less predictable but far more intense. These changes are having a number of impacts on Scottish agriculture in areas such as productivity, soil quality, pests and diseases, water availability and quality, and flooding. Agricultural practices without mitigation measures negatively affect soil and water quality by causing contamination by pollutants and erosion from poorly managed soil. The impacts from soil erosion alone have been estimated at £50m per year.^[77]

Whilst it is anticipated climate change impacts are likely to be mostly negative, the Committee for Climate Change (CCC) notes that UK agriculture and forestry may be able to increase production with warmer weather and longer growing seasons.^[78] Whilst uncertain, some crops and tree species may also benefit from increased CO2 fertilisation. However, the CCC notes that to realise this opportunity, the stewardship of important natural resources needs to be improved to prevent the availability of water and quality of soils constraining output, and farmers may also need advice to help them improve and adapt farm systems and exploit new markets.

Forestry

Over the second half of the 20th century, it became clear that the industrial, intensive, single purpose forestry that dominated the 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s was not sustainable.^[79]

Scotland’s forests and woodlands are an important resource of natural capital providing us with a range of environmental benefits which contribute to improvements in people’s quality of life such as clear air, water, timber and renewable energy. They help mitigate the impact of climate change by absorbing substantial amounts of carbon, and wood products continue to store captured carbon after harvesting. In 2022, 7.5 million tonnes of CO2 was removed from the atmosphere by Scotland’s forests and woodlands.^[80] Forests and woodlands support a diverse range of species and are rich in biodiversity; to date, researchers at Stirling University have recorded over 1000 species associated with Scottish forests.^[81]

However, it is recognised that there are associated risks to the environment if good practice is not followed, particularly during tree felling and ground cultivation activities.^[82] It is also recognised that there is a need to “improve the resilience of Scotland’s forests and woodlands and increase their contribution to a healthy and high quality environment” ^[83], through actions such as increasing tree species diversity, planting areas of mixed species, careful choice of tree seed provenance and allowing natural regeneration.^[84] Resilient forests can absorb and adapt to disturbances such as climate change and attacks by pests and diseases, helping them to stay healthy and sustainable into the future.^[85]

Peatland

Although large areas of our peatlands are in the relatively remote uplands of the north and west, many of our cities, towns and villages have peatlands on their doorsteps. These can be important areas for exercise and relaxation, as well as providing opportunities for active involvement, education and awareness-raising.^[86]

Healthy peat plays a vital role in carbon storage and combating the effects of climate change as well as providing a wider range of benefits^[87] to areas including:

• Nature - uniquely adapted groups of birds, plants, fungi, invertebrates and micro-organisms, some not found together anywhere else in the world, with some birds nesting at the highest densities yet recorded;
• Water supply – much of our drinking water comes from peatland areas and many of our important salmon rivers depend on peaty catchments. Maintaining peatlands in good condition, or restoring them, makes for cleaner water and lower costs to society;
• Flood management – intact peat bogs store water and help to maintain steady flow rates on salmon rivers. Natural and restored peatlands provide reduced downstream flood risks compared to damaged peatlands;
• Livestock grazing – many peatland areas support grazing livestock, mostly sheep, but also cattle. On some sites these can be used to control scrub and tree regeneration;
• Sporting management – sustaining much of our deer stalking, grouse shooting and fishing enterprises;
• Recreation – whether its hill walking, birdwatching or gazing from a lonely road, these remote, rolling peatlands provide an unrivalled and distinctly Scottish experience;
• Cultural enrichment – peatlands provide a sense of place for many and have been an inspiration for art, song, poetry and literature down the ages, and this remains the case today. Their colours are also captured in some tweeds and tartans;
• Health – walking for its own sake, to reach distant mountains or a remote loch or stream brings the benefits of physical exercise, refreshes the senses and can encourage calm reflection in otherwise busy and crowded lives.

Of course, it is only when our peatlands are in a healthy state that all these benefits flow. Much of our peatland is in poor condition and requires suitable management or even restoration. It is estimated that 70% of our blanket bog and 90% of our raised bog area has been damaged to some degree. ^[88] Damaged bogs are a source of climate-warming greenhouse gases, reduced water quality and deliver a diminished range of other services.

Ecosystem services

Our land is much more than simply fields, mountains, forests and peatland. So many of our needs are provided by land and nature that our land use choices affect almost every aspect of life for all of us. As well as the food we eat, it supplies us with bioenergy feedstock and renewable power to heat our homes, and the timber and land to build our houses and communities. It carries our roads and infrastructure, protects us from the elements, processes much of our waste and absorbs carbon. It is the basis for the ecosystems that we rely on, from the air we breathe and the water we drink, to the natural environment that is home to pollinators and contributes to our health and wellbeing. It is where we go for recreation, and to connect with the landscapes and heritage recognised and loved by both the people of Scotland and beyond.^[89]

It is very difficult to put an economic value on these services, but examples^[90] that illustrate the importance of ecosystem services include:

• Insect pollination services in Scotland are valued at an estimated £43 million per year;
• Scotland’s beaches and salt marshes protect £13bn of coastal buildings and infrastructure, compared to £5bn protected by engineered sea walls.

Biodiversity and nature

The State of Nature Report (2019)^[91] catalogues an alarming decline in biodiversity, noting there has been no let-up in the net loss of nature in Scotland with a continued decline in numbers and distribution of terrestrial and freshwater species during the last 10 years. Nevertheless, Scotland is still a stronghold in the UK for many species associated with farmland and upland habitats, particularly in those parts of Scotland where the farming systems and practices employed are sympathetic to wildlife.

As highlighted in the recently published Biodiversity strategy to 2045: tackling the nature emergency In Scotland, the evidence around the scale and nature of the biodiversity crisis is strong and continues to mount. The evidence points to a natural environment that has been heavily degraded, with continued declines across much of our land.

The Biodiversity Intactness Indicator^[92] shows that Scotland has lost almost half of its historic land-based biodiversity. That is slightly less than other parts of the UK, but Scotland still ranks in the bottom 25% of nations.

Measurements of natural capital indicate it has declined by over 15% since 1950. For example, The Natural Capital Asset Index^[93] finds that only around 64% of Scotland’s protected woodlands are in a favourable or recovering condition despite being the habitat with the greatest ecosystem services potential.

Scotland has seen a 24% decline in average abundance of 352 terrestrial and freshwater species since 1994, (noting that 1994 was not a high point), and a 14% decline in range for 2,970 terrestrial and freshwater species since 1970.^[94]

Nature conservation sites cover 18% of Scotland’s land area.^[95] However, only 65% of natural features on protected sites are classed as being in favourable condition, with a further 13% classed as unfavourable but recovering.^[96]

These nature conservation areas include:

• National parks - Scotland currently has two: Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park, established in 2002; and the Cairngorms National Park, established in 2003 and extended in 2010. Both serve as models of sustainable development and with that are central to rural economic development and recreation, sustainability, and conservation efforts.

• Natura 2000 ^[97] - This is the Europe-wide network of protected areas developed under the European Commission’s Habitats Directive and Birds Directive. It is made up of Special Areas of Conservation (SAC), which support rare, endangered or vulnerable natural habitats and species of plants or animals (other than birds) of European importance, and Special Protection Areas (SPA), which support significant numbers of wild birds and their habitats. Scotland provides the largest part of the UK contribution to the Natura 2000 network, with 15% of its land designated under the Birds and Habitats Directives. The UK figure is 8.5%. and the average across the EU is 18%.
• Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) ^[98] - These form a set of nationally important natural areas in the UK. SSSIs in Scotland are notified by NatureScot for a range of habitats and species under powers granted by the Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004, using UK-wide selection criteria. There are currently 1,440 SSSIs in Scotland.
• Ramsar sites ^[99] - These are wetlands of international importance designated under the Ramsar Convention on wetlands, an intergovernmental treaty that aims to conserve wetlands through local and national action and international cooperation.
• National Nature Reserves (NNRs) - areas of land set aside for nature and signify Scotland’s best wildlife sites.