Using intersectionality to understand structural inequality in Scotland: evidence synthesis
An evidence synthesis of literature on the concept of intersectionality. Looks at what the concept means, and how it can be applied to policymaking and analysis, as well as providing spotlight examples.
Footnotes
1 Crenshaw, Kimberle´ Williams (1989) "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics." University of Chicago Legal Forum 1989:139–67
2 Crenshaw, Kimberle´ Williams (1989) "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics." University of Chicago Legal Forum 1989:139–67, p. 149
3 Ibid
4 Ibid
5. Cole, E. R. (2009). 'Intersectionality and research in psychology'. American psychologist, 64(3), 170.
6 Loden, Marilyn; Rosener, Judy (1990) Workforce America! Managing Employee Diversity as a Vital Resource", McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing
7 Collins, P. H. (2002). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. routledge.
8 Crenshaw, K. (1990). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stan. L. Rev., 43, 1241.
9 Bauer, G. R., Churchill, S. M., Mahendran, M., Walwyn, C., Lizotte, D., & Villa-Rueda, A. A. (2021). Intersectionality in quantitative research: A systematic review of its emergence and applications of theory and methods. SSM-population health, 100798.
10 Equality and Human Rights Commission (2017), 'Measurement framework for equality and human rights', Measurement framework for equality and human rights | Equality and Human Rights Commission (equalityhumanrights.com), p. 52
11 A data analysis tool can be thought of as tool that helps analysts understand and interpret data. These tools vary depending on the goals of the research and type of data collected (e.g. qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods).
12 Ibid, p. 52
13 Bauer, G. R., Churchill, S. M., Mahendran, M., Walwyn, C., Lizotte, D., & Villa-Rueda, A. A. (2021). Intersectionality in quantitative research: A systematic review of its emergence and applications of theory and methods. SSM-population health, 100798.
14 Collins, P. H. (2015). Intersectionality's definitional dilemmas. Annual review of sociology, 41, 1-20.
15 Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: I. Theoretical and epistemological issues. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 155–170. doi:10. 1177/0361684316629797
16 Hankivsky, O. (2014). Intersectionality 101. The Institute for Intersectionality Research & Policy, SFU, 36.
17 Scott, Nicholas; Siltanen, Janet (2016), 'Intersectionality and quantitative methods: assessing regression from a feminist perspective', International Journal of Social Research Methodology, Intersectionality and Quantiative Methods (researchgate.net), p. 5 -6
18 Poverty and Inequality Commission (2021), 'Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland', Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland - Poverty & Inequality Commission (povertyinequality.scot)
19 Ibid
20 Crenshaw, Kimberle´ Williams (1989) "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics." University of Chicago Legal Forum 1989:139–67, p. 149
21 Christoffersen, Ashlee (2017), Intersectional Approaches to equality research and data, Research_and_data_briefing_2_Intersectional_approaches_to_equality_research_and_data.pdf (ecu.ac.uk), p. 3
22 Under the Equality Act 2010, the nine protected characteristics are: age; disability; sex; gender reassignment; pregnancy and maternity; race; religion or belief; and sexual orientation.
23 Christoffersen, Ashlee (2019). Are we all 'baskets of characteristics? 'Intersectional slippages and the displacement of race in English and Scottish equality policy. In The Palgrave Handbook of Intersectionality in Public Policy (pp. 705-731). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
24 Mügge, L., Montoya, C., Emejulu, A., & Weldon, S. L. (2018). Intersectionality and the politics of knowledge production. European Journal of Politics and Gender, 1(1-2), 17-36.
25 Christoffersen, Ashlee 'The Politics of Intersectional Practice: Towards an Intersectional Gender Equality Architecture', First Minister's National Advisory Council On Women And Girls Circle 18 August 2020: Creating an Intersectional Gender Architecture, Solidarity, coalition and intersectional practice: a case study (onescotland.org); Ashlee Christoffersen (2021), 'Intersectionality in practice: Research findings for practitioners & policy makers', Intersectionality-in-practice.pdf (ed.ac.uk)
26 Ibid
27 Ibid
28 Hankivsky, O. (2014). Intersectionality 101. The Institute for Intersectionality Research & Policy, SFU, 36.
29 Collins, P. H. (2015). Intersectionality's definitional dilemmas. Annual review of sociology, 41, 1-20.
30 Cho, S., Crenshaw, K. W., & McCall, L. (2013). Toward a field of intersectionality studies: Theory, applications, and praxis. Signs: Journal of women in culture and society, 38(4), 785-810.
31 Sigle-Rushton, Wendy (2013) Intersectionality. In: Evans,
Mary and Williams, Carolyn, (eds.) Gender: The Key Concepts. Routledge key guides. Routledge, Abingdon, UK.
32 Crenshaw, K W (1991) 'Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color', Stanford Law Review, Vol. 43, No. 6, pp. 1241-1299.
33 First Ministers Advisory Council on Women and Girls (202), '2020 Report and Recommendations', 562006_SCT1120576152-002_NACWG.pdf (onescotland.org), p. 8
34 Hankivsky, Olena; Grace, Daniel; Hunting, Gemma; Giesbrecht, Melissa; Fridkin, Alycia; Rudrum, Sarah; Ferlatte, Olivier; Clark, Natalie (2014), 'An intersectionality-based policy analysis framework: critical reflections on a methodology for advancing equity', International Journal for Equity in Health, 13(119), (PDF) An intersectionality-based policy analysis framework: Critical reflections on a methodology for advancing equity (researchgate.net), p. 2
35 Scott-Villiers, P. and Oosterom, M (2016) 'Power, Poverty and Inequality' IDS Bulletin Vol. 47 No. 5. https://bulletin.ids.ac.uk/index.php/idsbo/article/view/2790/ONLINE%20ARTICL
36 Christoffersen, Ashlee (2017), Intersectional Approaches to equality research and data, Research_and_data_briefing_2_Intersectional_approaches_to_equality_research_and_data.pdf (ecu.ac.uk), p. 4
37 Hankivsky, O. (Ed.). (2012). An Intersectionality-Based Policy Analysis Framework. Vancouver, BC: Institute for Intersectionality Research and Policy, Simon Fraser University.
38 Ibid
39 Ibid, p. 13 - 17
40 Providing a Māori perspective on wellbeing (tpk.govt.nz)
41 Hankivsky, Olena; Grace, Daniel; Hunting, Gemma; Giesbrecht, Melissa; Fridkin, Alycia; Rudrum, Sarah; Ferlatte, Olivier; Clark, Natalie (2014), 'An intersectionality-based policy analysis framework: critical reflections on a methodology for advancing equity', International Journal for Equity in Health, 13(119), (PDF) An intersectionality-based policy analysis framework: Critical reflections on a methodology for advancing equity (researchgate.net)
42 E.g: Expert Reference Group on COVID-19 and Ethnicity (2020), 'Improving data and evidence on ethnicity and health: initial advice and recommendations from the expert reference group on ethnicity', Improving+Data+and+Evidence+on+Ethnic+Inequalities+in+Health+-+Initial+Advice+and+Recommendations+from+the+Expert+Reference+Group+on+COVID-19+and+Ethnicity.pdf (www.gov.scot)
43 First Minister's National Advisory Council on Women and Girls (2020) '2020 Report and Recommendations', 562006_SCT1120576152-002_NACWG.pdf (onescotland.org)
44 Poverty and Inequality Commission (2020), 'Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland', Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland - Poverty & Inequality Commission (povertyinequality.scot)
45 Ibid, p. 28 - 29
46 The three key drivers of poverty: income from employment, income from social security and benefits in kind, and costs of living.
47 The six priority families at increased risk of child poverty: lone parents, families with a disabled adult or child, young mothers, minority ethnic families, families with a child under the age of one, larger families with three or more children.
48 Poverty and Inequality Commission (2020), 'Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland', Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland - Poverty & Inequality Commission (povertyinequality.scot), p. 29 - 31
49 Ibid, p. 31 - 32
50 Poverty in Scotland 2020 | JRF
51 Poverty and Inequality Commission (2020), 'Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland', Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland - Poverty & Inequality Commission (povertyinequality.scot), p. 32 - 34
52 Equality and Human Rights Commission (2016) Race report: Healing a divided Britain, report. Race report: Healing a divided Britain | Equality and Human Rights Commission (equalityhumanrights.com)
53 Poverty and Inequality Commission (2020), 'Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland', Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland - Poverty & Inequality Commission (povertyinequality.scot), p. 34 - 35
54 Ibid, p. 36 - 37
55 Ibid
56 An advisory non-departmental public body which provides independent advice and scrutiny to Scottish Ministers on poverty and inequality. About - Poverty & Inequality Commission (povertyinequality.scot)
57 Poverty and Inequality Commission (2021), 'Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland', Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland - Poverty & Inequality Commission (povertyinequality.scot)
58 All names are pseudonyms.
59 A debit payment issued by the UK Home Office to Asylum Seekers.
60 Poverty and Inequality Commission (2020), 'Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland', Intersectionality: Revealing the realities of poverty and inequality in Scotland - Poverty & Inequality Commission (povertyinequality.scot)
61 Lally, Clare (2020) 'Impact of COVID-19 on different ethnic minority groups', Impact of COVID-19 on different ethnic minority groups - POST (parliament.uk)
62 Other Asian: all ethnicities from Asia that do not fall under Chinese, Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi are grouped under Other Asian.
63 Deaths involving coronavirus (COVID-19) in Scotland, Report (nrscotland.gov.uk)
64 Kelly, M. (2016) Poverty and Ethnicity: Key Messages for Scotland. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation, p. 8. Poverty and ethnicity: key messages for Scotland (cpag.org.uk)
65 Netto, G., Sosenko, F. and Bramley, G. (2011) Poverty and Ethnicity in Scotland: Review of the Literature and Datasets. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Poverty and ethnicity in Scotland: Review of the literature and datasets (jrf.org.uk)
66 Lally, Clare (2020) 'Impact of COVID-19 on different ethnic minority groups', Impact of COVID-19 on different ethnic minority groups - POST (parliament.uk)
67 Haque, Zubaida; Becares, Laia; Treloar, Nick (2020), 'Over-Exposed and Under-Protected The Devastating Impact of COVID-19 on Black and Minority Ethnic Communities in Great Britain', The Runnymede Trust | Over-Exposed and Under-Protected
68 Public Health England (2020), 'Beyond the data: Understanding the impact of COVID-19 on BAME groups', Beyond the Data: Understanding the Impact of COVID-19 on BAME Communities (publishing.service.gov.uk)
69 The Institute for Fiscal Studies (2021), 'Are some ethnic groups more vulnerable to COVID-19 than others?'. Are some ethnic groups more vulnerable to COVID-19 than others? | Inequality: the IFS Deaton Review
70 Thomas, Chris (2019), 'Hitting the poorest worst? How public health cuts have been experienced in England's most deprived communities', Hitting the poorest worst? How public health cuts have been experienced in England's most deprived communities | IPPR
71 This is the terminology used with The Runnymede Report, rather than which is used by the Scottish Government.
72 These findings ae based on the findings of a survey conducted by ICM Unlimited on behalf of the race equality think tank Runnymede Trust. ICM interviewed a sample of 2,585 adults living in Great Britain aged 18+ using its online omnibus service between 3 and 17 June 2020. In addition, A 'boost' sample of 538 black and minority ethnic (BME) adults was conducted, taking the overall sample of BME respondents to 750. To ensure a representative sample, demographic quotas were set, and the data has been weighted to the profile of all adults in Great Britain aged 18+.
73 Haque, Zubaida; Becares, Laia; Treloar, Nick (2020), 'Over-Exposed and Under-Protected The Devastating Impact of COVID-19 on Black and Minority Ethnic Communities in Great Britain', The Runnymede Trust | Over-Exposed and Under-Protected
74 Keys, Clare; Nanyakkara, Gowri; Onyejekwe, Chisa; Kumar Sah, Rajeeb; Wright, Toni (2021), 'Health Inequalities and Ethnic Vulnerabilities During COVID-19 in the UK: A Reflection on the PHE Reports', Feminist Legal Studies, (29), 107 – 118
75 Crenshaw, Kimberle Williams (2020) Intersectionality matters: under the blacklight: history rinsed and repeated [Podcast]. 28 April 2020. Stream 14. Under the Blacklight: History Rinsed and Repeated by Intersectionality Matters with Kimberlé Crenshaw | Listen online for free on SoundCloud
76 Quinn, Sandra, C., and Kumar Supriya (2014) Health inequalities and infectious disease epidemics: a challenge for global health security. Biosecurity and bioterrorism: biodefense strategy, practice, and science. 12 (5): 263–273.
77 Public Health England (2020), 'Beyond the data: Understanding the impact of COVID-19 on BAME groups', Beyond the Data: Understanding the Impact of COVID-19 on BAME Communities (publishing.service.gov.uk), p. 7 - 8
78 Expert Reference Group on COVID-19 and Ethnicity (2020) 'Initial advice & recommendations on systemic issues', Systemic+Issues+and+Risk+-+Initial+Advice+and+Recommendations+from+the+Expert+Reference+Group+on+COVID-19+and+Ethnicity+(002).pdf
79 Ibid
80 Ibid
81 Equate Scotland (2020), 'Women in STEM: An Intersectional Analysis of Multiple Discriminations', Women-in-STEM-report-2.pdf (equatescotland.org.uk)
82 Inclusion Scotland (2020), 'Services for Who? The experiences of disabled people with other characteristics when accessing services', Services-for-who-final-report-1.pdf (drilluk.org.uk)
83 Winker, G., & Degele, N. (2011). Intersectionality as multi-level analysis: Dealing with social inequality. European Journal of Women's Studies, 18(1), 51-66.
84 Bauer, G. R., & Scheim, A. I. (2019) Methods for analytic intercategorical intersectionality in quantitative research: Discrimination as a mediator of health inequalities
85 Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: II. Methods and techniques. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 319-336.
86 Global Partnership for Sustainable Development Data (2021), 'Unpacking Intersectional Approaches to Data', Unpacking Intersectional Approaches to Data (data4sdgs.org)
87 Unpacking Intersectional Approaches to Data (data4sdgs.org)
88 JN_1286_IDC_KP_WhitePaper_24pp_A4.pdf (data4sdgs.org)
89 Cole, Elizabeth R. (2009), 'Intersectionality and Research in Psychology', American Psychologist, 64(3), p. 170 -180, Intersectionality-and-Research-in-Psychology.pdf (researchgate.net), p. 171
90 Hankivsky, O. (2014). Intersectionality 101. The Institute for Intersectionality Research & Policy, SFU, 36.
91 Cole, Elizabeth R. (2009), 'Intersectionality and Research in Psychology', American Psychologist, 64(3), p. 170 -180, Intersectionality-and-Research-in-Psychology.pdf (researchgate.net), p. 171
92 Ibid
93 Global Partnership for Sustainable Development Data (2021), 'Unpacking Intersectional Approaches to Data', Unpacking Intersectional Approaches to Data (data4sdgs.org)
94 Christoffersen, Ashlee (2017), Intersectional Approaches to equality research and data, Research_and_data_briefing_2_Intersectional_approaches_to_equality_research_and_data.pdf (ecu.ac.uk), p. 5
95 Grabe, Shelly (2020), 'Research Methods in the Study of Intersectionality in Psychology: Examples Informed by a Decade of Collaborative Work With Majority Women's Grassroots Activism', Frontiers in Psychology, 11
96 Abrams, Jasmine; Tabaac, Ariella; Jung, Sarah; Else-Quest, Nicole (2020), 'Considerations for Employing Intersectionality in Qualitative Health Research', Soc Sci Med 258, p. 7
97 Christoffersen, Ashlee (2017), Intersectional Approaches to equality research and data, Research_and_data_briefing_2_Intersectional_approaches_to_equality_research_and_data.pdf (ecu.ac.uk), p. 5
98 Ibid, p. 5
99 Teixeira, Samantha; Augsberger, Astraea; Richards-Schuster, Katie; Sprague Martinez, Linda (2021), 'Participatory Research Approaches with Youth: Ethics, Engagement and Meaningful Action', American Journal of Community Psychology, 68(1 – 2), p. 142 – 153, p. 144
100 INVOLVE (2016). Public involvement in research: values and principles framework., Public involvement in research: values and principles framework – INVOLVE
102 Ibid, p. 44
103 INVOLVEBriefingNotesApr2012.pdf
104 INVOLVEBriefingNotesApr2012.pdf; Brady, Louca-Mai; Graham, Berni (2021) 'Public involvement in social research'
105 Talat Yaqoob , 'Delivering participative and lived experience led research', Presentation to Scottish Government 14 September 2021
106 INVOLVE (2016). Public involvement in research: values and principles framework. Available from: http://www.invo.org.uk/posttypepublication/public-involvement-in-researchvalues-and-principles-framework/
107 Together we help (2021), ' Social action during the coronavirus pandemic: Learning from the crisis to help build forward better', social-action-during-the-coronavirus-pandemic-report.pdf (nhsggc.org.uk)
108 Social Security Charter measurement framework: co-design process - gov.scot (www.gov.scot)
109 Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: II. Methods and techniques. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 319-336.
110 Christoffersen, Ashlee (2017), Intersectional Approaches to equality research and data, Research_and_data_briefing_2_Intersectional_approaches_to_equality_research_and_data.pdf (ecu.ac.uk), p. 5
111 Ibid, p. 6
112 Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: II. Methods and techniques. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 319-336.
113 'Between-group designs' refers to research that compares two or more groups of people (e.g. comparing women versus men).
114 Stratified Random Sampling - SAGE Research Methods (sagepub.com)
115 Abrams, Jasmine; Tabaac, Ariella; Jung, Sarah; Else-Quest, Nicole (2020), 'Considerations for Employing Intersectionality in Qualitative Health Research', Soc Sci Med 258, p. 9
116 Purposive Sample - SAGE Research Methods (sagepub.com)
117 Ibid
118 Government Equalities Office (2008), 'National LGBT Survey: Summary Report', National LGBT Survey: Summary report (publishing.service.gov.uk), p. 7
119 Ibid
120 Ibid, p. 10
121 Ibid, p. 10
122 McCall, Leslie (2005), 'The Complexity of Intersectionality', Signs, 30(3), pp. 1771-1800, McCall (2005) The Complex of Intersectionality .pdf (umich.edu)
123 Walby, Sylvia (2007) 'Complexity Theory, Systems Theory, and Multiple Intersecting Social Inequalities', Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 37( 4): 449-470
124 Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: II. Methods and techniques. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 319-336.
125 Ibid
* Estimates marked with an * indicate they are based on a small sample size which may be less precise and should be used with caution
128 'Minority ethnic' includes all categories outside the white population - 'Mixed/Multiple ethnic groups', 'Asian/Asian Scottish/Asian British', 'African', 'Caribbean or Black', 'Arab' or 'Other ethnic group'. 'White includes 'White Polish' and 'White Gypsy' who also suffer disadvantage
129 Scottish Government (2021), 'Scotland's Labour Market: People, Places and Regions – Statistics from the Annual Population Survey 2020/21', Scotland's Labour Market: People, Places and Regions - Statistics from the Annual Population Survey 2020/21 - gov.scot (www.gov.scot)
131 Bauer, G. R., & Scheim, A. I (2019). 'Methods for analytic intercategorical intersectionality in quantitative research: Discrimination as a mediator of health inequalities', Methods for analytic intercategorical intersectionality in quantitative research_ Discrimination as a mediator of health inequalities (researchgate.net)
132 Bauer GR (2014), ' Incorporating intersectionality theory into population health research methodology: challenges and the potential to advance health equity.' Soc Sci Med, Incorporating intersectionality theory into population health research methodology: Challenges and the potential to advance health equity - ScienceDirect
133 Scott, Nicholas; Siltanen, Janet (2016), 'Intersectionality and quantitative methods: assessing regression from a feminist perspective', International Journal of Social Research Methodology, Intersectionality and Quantitative Methods (researchgate.net), p. 2
134 Ibid, p. 2
135 multiple-regression-ANOVA.pdf (open.ac.uk)
136 JN_1286_IDC_KP_Sightsavers_CaseStudy.pdf (data4sdgs.org)
137 Ibid
138 Scott, Nicholas; Siltanen, Janet (2016), 'Intersectionality and quantitative methods: assessing regression from a feminist perspective', International Journal of Social Research Methodology, Intersectionality and Quantitative Methods (researchgate.net), p. 2
139 Ibid
140 Ibid
141 Ibid
142 Ibid
143 Ibid
144 Cole, Elizabeth R. (2009), 'Intersectionality and Research in Psychology', American Psychologist, 64(3), p. 170 -180, Intersectionality-and-Research-in-Psychology.pdf (researchgate.net)
145 JN_1286_IDC_KP_Sightsavers_CaseStudy.pdf (data4sdgs.org)
146 Scott, Nicholas; Siltanen, Janet (2016), 'Intersectionality and quantitative methods: assessing regression from a feminist perspective', International Journal of Social Research Methodology, Intersectionality and Quantiative Methods (researchgate.net)
147 Ibid, p. 12
148 Ibid
149 Ibid
150 Ibid, p. 16
151 Multilevel modelling (apa.org)
152 Scott, Nicholas; Siltanen, Janet (2016), 'Intersectionality and quantitative methods: assessing regression from a feminist perspective', International Journal of Social Research Methodology, Intersectionality and Quantiative Methods (researchgate.net), p. 16
153 Ibid, p. 17
154 Ibid
155 Ibid, p. 22
156 Cole, Elizabeth R. (2009), 'Intersectionality and Research in Psychology', American Psychologist, 64(3), p. 170 -180, Intersectionality-and-Research-in-Psychology.pdf (researchgate.net), p. 177
157 Ibid
158 Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: II. Methods and techniques. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 319-336.
159 Harackiewicz, J. M., Canning, E. A., Tibbetts, Y., Priniski, S. J., & Hyde, J. S. (2015). Closing achievement gaps with a utility-value intervention: Disentangling race and social class. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. doi:10.1037/pspp0000075
160 Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: II. Methods and techniques. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 319-336.
161 Ibid
162 Ibid
163 Ibid
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