Negative Emissions Technologies (NETS): Feasibility Study - Technical Appendices

Footnotes

1. BEIS, ‘Direct Air Capture and other Greenhouse Gas Removal technologies competition’: Direct Air Capture and other Greenhouse Gas Removal technologies competition - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)

2. The Climate Change Committee (2020), ‘Policies for the Sixth Carbon Budget and Net Zero’: Sixth Carbon Budget - Climate Change Committee (theccc.org.uk)

3. National Infrastructure Commission (2021), ‘Engineered greenhouse gas removals’: Engineered greenhouse gas removals - NIC

4. BEIS (2022), ‘Projects selected for Phase 2 of the Direct air capture and greenhouse gas removal programme’: Projects selected for Phase 2 of the Direct air capture and greenhouse gas removal programme - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)

5. Carbon Engineering (2021), ‘Engineering begins on UK’s first large-scale facility that captures carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere’: Engineering begins on UK’s first large-scale facility that captures carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere (carbonengineering.com)

6. BEIS (2022), ‘Projects selected for Phase 1 of the Direct air capture and greenhouse gas removal programme’: Projects selected for Phase 1 of the Direct air capture and greenhouse gas removal programme - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)

7. Carbon capture Scotland (2022): Dry Ice Scotland

8. BECCS and negative emissions, Drax, Accessed at: https://www.drax.com/about-us/our-projects/bioenergy-carbon-capture-use-and-storage-beccs/

9. Stockholm Exergi carbon capture scheme gets EU support, Accessed at: Stockholm Exergi carbon capture scheme gets EU support - DCD (datacenterdynamics.com)

10. Toshiba starts operation of large-scale carbon capture facility, October 2020, Accessed at: https://www.global.toshiba/ww/news/energy/2020/10/news-20201031-01.html?utm_source=www&utm_medium=web&utm_campaign=since202202ess

11. Alco Bio Fuel Ghent: GHG emission savings

12. Alco Energy Rotterdam: Greenhouse Gas Emission Saving

13. ePure, (2022): European renewable ethanol – key figures 2021

14. Global CCS Institute, (2022): Global Status of CCS 2022

15. Renewable Fuels Association: Feedstocks and Co-Products

16. Global CCS Institute, (2022): Bioenergy and Carbon Capture and Storage

17. Aemetis (2022): Carbon Capture and Sequestration

18. BEIS (2021), ‘October 2021 update: Track-1 clusters confirmed’: October 2021 update: Track-1 clusters confirmed - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)

19. Biofuels International, ‘alfanar’s £1 billion Teesside SAF plant enters FEED engineering phase’: alfanar’s £1 billion Teesside SAF plant enters FEED engineering phase - Biofuels International Magazine | Biofuels International Magazine (biofuels-news.com)

20. Altalto, ‘Immingham, the site of our first waste-to-fuels plant’: Immingham | Altalto

21. Covanta, ‘Protos Energy Recovery Facility’: Protos Energy-from-Waste Facility (covanta.com)

22. Element Energy, ‘Review of international delivery of negative emission technologies’: Review of international delivery of negative emission technologies (climatexchange.org.uk)

23. IEA, ‘Clean Energy Demonstration Projects Database’: Clean Energy Demonstration Projects Database – Data Tools - IEA

24. ETIP Bioenergy, ‘Production Facilities’: Production Facilities (etipbioenergy.eu)

25. European Commission, ‘BIONICO: A pilot plant for turning biomass directly into hydrogen’: BIONICO: A pilot plant for turning biomass directly into hydrogen | BIONICO Project | Results in brief | H2020 | CORDIS | European Commission (europa.eu)

26. Projects Bioenergy ExCo: Projects | Bioenergy ExCo (best-research.eu)

27. BEIS, ‘Hydrogen BECCS Innovation Programme Phase 1: successful projects’: Hydrogen BECCS Innovation Programme Phase 1: successful projects - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)

28. Absl, ‘Swindon Plant’: Swindon Plant | Advanced Biofuel Solutions Ltd (absl.tech)

29. Kew Technology, ‘Our commercial scale plant’: Our commercial plant KEW Technology Delivering a world beyond fossil fuels (kew-tech.com)

30. Bioenergy Infrastructure Group, ‘Ince Bio Power secures funding for carbon capture demonstration project, in win for Net Zero ambitions in North West’: Ince Bio Power secures funding for carbon capture demonstration project, in win for Net Zero ambitions in North West - Bioenergy Infrastructure Group

31. IEA (2022), ‘Direct Air Capture Direct Air Capture a key technology for Net Zero’: Direct Air Capture 2022 – Analysis - IEA

32. Hydrocell (2018), ‘Direct Air Capture (DAC) appliances’: Direct Air Capture (DAC) appliances - Hydrocell Oy

33. Carbon Engineering (2021), ‘Carbon Engineering Innovation Centre Update’: Carbon Engineering Innovation Centre Update - Carbon Engineering

34. Using an average exchange rate of 0.7798 USD/GBP in 2020

35. Haszeldine et al (2019), ‘Greenhouse Gas Removal Technologies – approaches and implementation pathways in Scotland’: Greenhouse Gas Removal Technologies – approaches and implementation pathways in Scotland

36. IEA (2022), ‘Direct Air Capture technology deep dive’: Direct Air Capture – Analysis - IEA

37. Climeworks (2022), ‘Climeworks takes another major step on its road to building gigaton DAC capacity’: Groundbreaking on Climeworks' newest facility has started

38. IEA (2021), ‘DAC1’: DAC 1 – CCUS around the world – Analysis - IEA

39. Carbon Engineering (2021), ‘New partnership to deploy large-scale Direct Air Capture in Norway’: New partnership to deploy large-scale Direct Air Capture in Norway (carbonengineering.com)

40. Nosrk e-fuel (2022), ‘Accelerating the transition to renewable aviation’: Norsk e-Fuel - Sustainable aviaton (norsk-e-fuel.com)

41. Global Thermostat (2021), ‘Global Thermostat to Supply Equipment Needed to Remove Atmospheric CO₂ for HIF’s Haru Oni eFuels Pilot Plant’: Global Thermostat to Supply Equipment Needed to Remove Atmospheric CO₂ for HIF’s Haru Oni eFuels Pilot Plant - Global Thermostat (archive.org)

42. 1PointFive (2022), ‘1PointFive and Carbon Engineering Announce Direct Air Capture Deployment Approach to Enable Global Build-Out of Plants’: PointFive and Carbon Engineering Announce Direct Air Capture Deployment Approach to Enable Global Build-Out of Plants (1pointfive.com)

43. IEA, ‘Clean Energy Demonstration Projects Database’: Clean Energy Demonstration Projects Database – Data Tools - IEA

44. IEA (2021), “Net Zero By 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector”: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/deebef5d-0c34-4539-9d0c-10b13d840027/NetZeroby2050-ARoadmapfortheGlobalEnergySector_CORR.pdf

45. Benchmarking State-of-the-art and Next Generation Technologies (publishing.service.gov.uk)

46. Analysis the potential of bioenergy with carbon capture in the UK to 2050, Ricardo, 2020

47. Rodin et al (2020), ‘Assessing the potential of carbon dioxide valorisation in Europe with focus on biogenic CO₂’: Assessing the potential of carbon dioxide valorisation in Europe with focus on biogenic CO₂ - ScienceDirect

48. An et al (2022), ‘The impact of climate on solvent-based direct air capture systems’: The impact of climate on solvent-based direct air capture systems

49. de Jonge et al (2019), ‘Life cycle carbon efficiency of Direct Air Capture systems with strong hydroxide sorbents’: Life cycle carbon efficiency of Direct Air Capture systems with strong hydroxide sorbents - ScienceDirect

50. Terlouw et al (2022), ‘Life Cycle Assessment of Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage with Low-Carbon Energy Sources’: Life Cycle Assessment of Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage with Low-Carbon Energy Sources | Environmental Science & Technology (acs.org)

51. McQueen et al (2021), ‘A review of direct air capture (DAC): scaling up commercial technologies and innovating for the future’: A review of direct air capture (DAC): scaling up commercial technologies and innovating for the future - IOPscience

52. Fasihi et al (2019), Techno-economic assessment of CO₂ direct air capture plants’: Techno-economic assessment of CO₂ direct air capture plants - ScienceDirect

53. Cooper et al (2022), ‘The life cycle environmental impacts of negative emission technologies in North America’: The life cycle environmental impacts of negative emission technologies in North America

54. Novais et al (2017), ‘Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Tropical Soils Amended with Poultry Manure and Sugar Cane Straw Biochars’: Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Tropical Soils Amended with Poultry Manure and Sugar Cane Straw Biochars (scirp.org)

55. Matusik et al (2020), ‘Life cycle assessment of biochar-to-soil systems: A review’: Life cycle assessment of biochar-to-soil systems: A review - ScienceDirect

56. WikiBiomass (2022), ‘Pyrolysis’: Pyrolysis – European Biomass Industry Association (eubia.org)

57. Ricardo, ‘Synergies and Potential of the Scottish Bioeconomy’ (2020)

58. Freer et al (2022), ‘Putting Bioenergy With Carbon Capture and Storage in a Spatial Context: What Should Go Where?’: (PDF) Putting Bioenergy With Carbon Capture and Storage in a Spatial Context: What Should Go Where? (researchgate.net)

59. Vivid economics (2019), ‘Greenhouse Gas Removal (GGR) policy options – Final Report’: Greenhouse gas removal policy options - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)

60. Krysanova (2019), ‘Properties of biochar obtained by hydrothermal carbonization and torrefaction of peat’ :Properties of biochar obtained by hydrothermal carbonization and torrefaction of peat - ScienceDirect

61. The CabiNETs Secretary for Net Zero, Energy and Transport (2022), ‘Climate Change Plan: monitoring reports 2022’: Climate Change Plan: monitoring reports 2022 - gov.scot (www.gov.scot)

62. The Climate Change Committee (2020), ‘The Sixth Carbon Budget – The UK’s path to Net Zero’: Sixth Carbon Budget - Climate Change Committee (theccc.org.uk)

63. Scottish Government (2020), ‘Developing Scotland's circular economy - proposals for legislation: analysis of responses’: Executive summary - Developing Scotland's circular economy - proposals for legislation: analysis of responses - gov.scot (www.gov.scot)

64. Dieterich et al, ‘Power-to-liquid via synthesis of methanol, DME or Fischer–Tropsch-fuels: a review’: Power-to-liquid via synthesis of methanol, DME or Fischer–Tropsch-fuels: a review - Energy & Environmental Science (RSC Publishing)

65. BEIS (2022), ‘Government Response to the National Infrastructure Commission’s Report on Engineered Greenhouse Gas Removals’: National Infrastructure Commission report on greenhouse gas removals (GGRs): government response - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)

66. Element Energy (2021), ‘Review of International Delivery of Negative Emissions Technologies’: Review of international delivery of negative emission technologies (climatexchange.org.uk)

67. Ricardo, Comparing Scottish bioenergy supply and demand in the context of Net-Zero targets: Comparing Scottish bioenergy supply and demand in the context of Net-Zero targets (climatexchange.org.uk)

68. The CCPu (2018), ‘Update to the Climate Change Plan 2018 - 2032: Securing a Green Recovery on a Path to Net Zero’: Supporting documents - Securing a green recovery on a path to Net Zero: climate change plan 2018–2032 - update - gov.scot (www.gov.scot)

69. Scottish Government (2022), ‘UK emissions trading scheme’: UK emissions trading scheme - Climate change - gov.scot (www.gov.scot)

70. Pour et al (2018), ‘Opportunities for application of BECCS in the Australian power sector’: Opportunities for application of BECCS in the Australian power sector - ScienceDirect

71. European Green Deal: European Commission proposes certification of carbon removals to help reach Net Zero emissions, EC, November 2022

72. Support scheme for bio-ccs, IEA, Accessed at: https://www.iea.org/policies/14843-support-scheme-for-bio-ccs

73. Bio-CCS as a policy measure to achieve climate goals – the pioneering support scheme in Sweden, Svante Soderholm, Nicki Carnbrand Hakansson, 2022

74. Jeswani et al, ‘Environmental sustainability of negative emissions technologies: A review’: Environmental sustainability of negative emissions technologies: A review

75. Biomass pre-treatment for bioenergy: https://www.ieabioenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/CS1-Torrefaction.pdf

76. Trends in the use of solid recovered fuels: https://www.ieabioenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Trends-in-use-of-solid-recovered-fuels-Main-Report-Task36.pdf

77. IEAGHG, ‘CCS on Waste to Energy’: New IEAGHG report: 2020-06 CCS on Waste to Energy - BLOG

78. IEEFA study on applications and conceptualisations of CCUS: https://ieefa.org/resources/carbon-capture-crux-lessons-learned

79. US Department of Energy had investment in CCUS demonstration projects: https://priceofoil.org/2022/01/13/us-government-wastes-1-billion-on-failed-ccs-projects/

80. Wang et al (2021): “What went wrong? Learning from three decades of carbon capture, utilization and sequestration (CCUS) pilot and demonstration projects”: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030142152100416X

81. Public Policy Projects report on CCUS infrastructure: https://web.archive.org/web/20221123112225/https:/publicpolicyprojects.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2022/11/PPP-Carbon-Capture-Report.pdf

82. BEIS (2022), ‘Cluster sequencing Phase-2: shortlisted projects (power CCUS, hydrogen and ICC), August 2022’: Cluster sequencing Phase-2: shortlisted projects (power CCUS, hydrogen and ICC), August 2022 - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)

83. UK Government Spring Budget 2023: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/spring-budget-2023/spring-budget-2023-html

84. Terlouw et al (2022), ‘Life Cycle Assessment of Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage with Low-Carbon Energy Sources’: Life Cycle Assessment of Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage with Low-Carbon Energy Sources | Environmental Science & Technology (acs.org)

85. Perceptions of bioenergy with carbon capture and storage in different policy scenarios, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-08592-5

86. Carbon Capture Usage and Storage: Public Dialogue, 2021, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1005434/ccus-public-perceptions-traverse-report.pdf

87. Carbon Herald,” The Top 10 Carbon Capture Companies in 2022”, https://carbonherald.com/top-10-carbon-capture-companies/

88. ClimAccelerator, “Five European start-ups selected to scale carbon removal innovations”, https://climaccelerator.climate-kic.org/news/5-european-start-ups-selected-to-scale-carbon-removal-innovations/

89. Statisticss and economic data on Oil & Gas in the UK: https://www.ukeiti.org/oil-gas

90. Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, Technology deep dive, IEA, 2022

91. IEAGHG, ‘Biomass CCS Study’: Microsoft Word - 00_General Index - Rev.2.doc (ieaghg.org)

92. Scottish Carbon Capture & Storage (SCCS), ‘Negative Emission Technology in Scotland: carbon capture and storage for biogenic CO₂ emissions’

93. DESNZ and BEIS, ‘Greenhouse gas reporting: conversion factors 2022’: Greenhouse gas reporting: conversion factors 2022 - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)

94. The life cycle environmental impacts of negative emissions technologies in North America, Cooper et al, 2022

95. The climate change impacts of burning municipal waste in Scotland - Technical Report, 2021, Zero Waste Scotland, Accessed at: mfa- fhszvb-1678196543d (zerowastescotland.org.uk)

96. Material and Energy Valorisation of Waste in a Circular Economy, 2022, IEA Bioenergy, Accessed at https://www.ieabioenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/T36_Waste_Circuar_Economy_final_report.pdf

97. Incinerator Bottom Ash, Day Group Ltd, Accessed at: https://www.daygroup.co.uk/our-group/recycling/incinerator-bottom-ash/

98. Zaman et al (2017), “Pyrolysis: A Sustainable Way to Generate Energy from Waste”, Accessed at: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/56034

99. Xe, ‘Xe Currency Converter’: 1 EUR to GBP - Euros to British Pounds Exchange Rate (xe.com)

100. Gary C. Young, “Municiple Solid Waste to Enery Conversion Process, Economic, Technical and Renewable Comparisons”, Accessed at http://energy.cleartheair.org.hk/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Municipal-Solid-Waste-to-Energy-Conversion-Processes-Economic-Technical-And-Renewable-Comparisons-0470539674-Wiley-1.pdf

101. Greenhouse gas removal methods and their potential UK deployment, Element Energy, Accessed at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1026988/ggr-methods-potential-deployment.pdf

102. Energy from Waste Plants with Carbon Capture - A preliminary Assessment of Their Potential Value to the Decarbonisation of the UK, 2020, Catapult Energy Systems, Accessed at: https://esc-production-2021.s3.eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/2021/10/20200513-Energy-from-Waste-Plants-with-Carbon-Capture-Final.pdf

103. Transforming industry through CCUS, IEA, 2019

104. Carbon capture in the heart of the city (archive.org)

105. Tennent’s Brewery installs CCUS: https://www.foodmanufacture.co.uk/Article/2020/07/20/Tennent-s-Brewery-launches-carbon-capture-facility

106. Voldsund et al, ‘Comparison of Technologies for CO₂ Capture from Cement Production—Part 1: Technical Evaluation’: [PDF] Comparison of Technologies for CO2 Capture from Cement Production—Part 1: Technical Evaluation | Semantic Scholar

107. Onarheim et al. (2017): Performance and costs of CCS in the pulp and paper industry part 1: Performance of amine-based post-combustion CO2 capture

108. UPM Caledonian (2022): upm-emas-report-ettringen-2021_en.pdf

109. Martin et al. (2000): Opportunities to improve energy efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. pulp and paper industry

110. Ofgem (2021): Biomass Sustainability Dataset 2019-20

111. Ardgowan Distillery to pilot novel CO2 capture technology | Scottish Financial News

112. Deployment of bio-CCS in the cement sector: an overview of technology options and policy tools, IEA Bioenergy, 2021

113. Decarbonising Industry via BECCS: Promising sectors, challenges and techno-economic limits of negative emissions, S.E Tanzer et al, 2021

114. Cement kilns, ‘Dunbar’: Cement Kilns: Dunbar

115. CPI (2022). Position paper: https://thecpi.org.uk/library/PDF/Public/Publications/Position%20Papers/PP_2050Roadmap_March2023.pdf

116. IEA.Technology , "Roadmap - low-carbon transition in the cement industry," International Energy Agency, Paris, 2018.

117. Department for Business Energy and Industrial Strategy, "Options for switching UK cement production sites to near zero CO₂ emission fuel: Technical and financial feasibility.," 2019.

118. M. R. M. K. S. S. A. Rahman, "Cement kiln process modeling to achieve energy efficiency by utilizing agricultural biomass as alternative fuels," Thermofluid Modeling for Energy Efficiency Applications, pp. 197-225, 2016.

119. Element energy (2021), ‘Greenhouse gas removal methods: technology assessment report’: Greenhouse gas removal methods: technology assessment report - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)

120. Climate Change Committee (2018), ‘Hydrogen in a low-carbon economy’: Hydrogen in a low-carbon economy - Climate Change Committee (theccc.org.uk)

121. BEIS, ‘Advanced Gasification Technologies – Review and Benchmarking’: Advanced Gasification Technologies – Review and Benchmarking: Technical assessment and economic analysis - task report 5 (publishing.service.gov.uk)

122. BEIS, ‘Hydrogen production costs 2021’: Hydrogen production costs 2021 - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)

123. Cumicheo et al, ‘Natural gas and BECCS: A comparative analysis of alternative configurations for negative emissions power generation’: Natural gas and BECCS: A comparative analysis of alternative configurations for negative emissions power generation - ScienceDirect

124. BEIS (2021), ‘Biomass policy statement: a strategic view on the role of sustainable biomass for Net Zero’: Biomass policy statement: a strategic view on the role of sustainable biomass for Net Zero - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)

125. BEIS (2021), ‘UK Hydrogen Strategy’: UK hydrogen strategy - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)

126. IEA (2019), ‘Putting CO₂ to Use’: Putting CO₂ to Use – Analysis - IEA

127. Antonin et al (2020), ‘Hydrogen production from natural gas and biomethane with carbon capture and storage – A techno-environmental analysis’’: Hydrogen production from natural gas and biomethane with carbon capture and storage – A techno-environmental analysis - Sustainable Energy & Fuels (RSC Publishing)

128. Materazzi et al (2019), ‘Production of biohydrogen from gasification of waste fuels: Pilot plant results and deployment prospects’: Production of biohydrogen from gasification of waste fuels: Pilot plant results and deployment prospects - ScienceDirect

129. IEAGHG, ‘Potential for Biomethane production with carbon dioxide capture and storage’: Technical Reports - Files - IEAGHG Document Manager

130. Koornneef et al (2013), “Global potential for biomethane production with carbon capture, transport and storage up to 2050”: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610213007765

131. Biomethane/ RNG, Clarke Energy, Accessed at: https://www.clarke-energy.com/applications/biomethane-renewable-natural-gas-rng/

132. Ardolino and Arena, ‘Biowaste-to-Biomethane: An LCA study on biogas and syngas roads’ (2019): Biowaste-to-Biomethane: An LCA study on biogas and syngas roads - ScienceDirect

133. Ardolino et al (2021), “Biogas-to-biomethane upgrading: A comparative review and assessment in a life cycle perspective”: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032120308728

134. Potential for Biomethane Production with Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage, 2013, The International Energy Agency, Accessed at: https://ieaghg.org/docs/General_Docs/Reports/2013-11.pdf

135. Element Energy (2022), ‘Policy Mechanisms for First of a Kind Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage (DACCS) and other Engineered Greenhouse Gas Removals (GGRs)’: BEIS - Engineered GGR policies - Final Report - Element Energy (element-energy.co.uk)

136. Direct Air Capture, technology deep dive, 2022, https://www.iea.org/reports/direct-air-capture

137. Shackley et al, ‘The feasibility and costs of biochar deployment in the UK’: Full article: The feasibility and costs of biochar deployment in the UK (tandfonline.com)

138. The Royal Society (2018), ‘Greenhouse gas removal’: https://royalsociety.org/-/media/policy/projects/greenhouse-gas-removal/royal-society-greenhouse-gas-removal-report-2018.pdf

139. Peters et al (2015), ‘Biomass Pyrolysis for Biochar or Energy Applications? A Life Cycle Assessment’: Biomass Pyrolysis for Biochar or Energy Applications? A Life Cycle Assessment | Environmental Science & Technology (acs.org)

140. Ahmed et al (2011), ‘The potential role of biochar in combating climate change in Scotland: An analysis of feedstocks, life cycle assessment and spatial dimensions’: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09640568.2011.608890?journalCode=cjep20

141. DEFRA, (2021), Area of crops grown for bioenergy in England and the UK: 2008-2020. Section 1: Biofuels

142. US Department of Agriculture, (2021): European Union: Biofuels Annual

143. Beta Renewables: What is Proesa™?

144. St1 Nordic Oy, (2018): St1 Cellunolix® process – Lignocellulosic bioethanol production and value chain upgrading

145. NNFCC, (2019): An Assessment of the Opportunities for Re-establishing Sugar Beet Production and Processing in Scotland

146. Jafri et al. (2022): Double Yields and Negative Emissions? Resource, Climate and Cost Efficiencies in Biofuels With Carbon Capture, Storage and Utilization

147. Celtic Renewables: About us

148. ePure, (2021): European Renewable Ethanol – key figures 2020 (www.epure.org)

149. Concawe, (2021): Transition towards Low Carbon fuels by 2050: Scenario analysis for the European refining sector

150. Pulp-Tec - the leading producer of moulded pulp in Europe: pulp-tec

151. Cullen - Manufacturer of moulded pulp and corrugated packaging | UK

152. 13/01781/EIA | Anaerobic digestion facility energy plant and associated infrastructure at | Glenfiddich Distillery Castle Road Dufftown Keith Moray AB55 4DH

153. 19/00988/APP | Extension to Anaerobic Digestion Facility Energy Plant and associated infrastructure at | Grissan Riverside Ltd Glenfiddich Distillery Castle Road Dufftown Keith Moray AB55 4DH

154. Moray Council: Planning Application: 21/01605/APP

155. SEPA: draft_decision_document.pdf (sepa.org.uk)

156. Strathclyde County: Planning Application: 21/00686/FUL https://pabs.stirling.gov.uk/online-applications/applicationDetails.do?activeTab=documents&keyVal=QX7BJCPIG0N00

157. caledonian_2021_en.pdf (upm.com)

158. How is CaberFloor made? - West Fraser

159. Balcas Energy - Timber Merchant (business.site)

160. 06/00944/FULRC | Combined heat and power and wood pelleting plant | Cromarty Firth Industrial Estate Invergordon Highland 06/00944/FULRC

161. Barony Plant | EGGER

162. EGGER's Barony expansion to create more jobs in Auchinleck | Cumnock Chronicle

163. Heat Networks Planning Database - data.gov.uk

164. Tarmac, ‘Tarmac boosts cement plant sustainability’: Tarmac boosts cement plant sustainability | Dunbar Quarry

165. Whisky Invest Direct, ‘Malt whisky distilleries in Scotland’: Malt whisky distilleries in Scotland | WhiskyInvestDirect

166. Whisky Invest Direct, ‘Grain whisky distilleries in Scotland’: Grain whisky distilleries in Scotland | WhiskyInvestDirect

167. HZI confirmed for another UK-based EfW plant build | ENDS Waste & Bioenergy (endswasteandbioenergy.com)

168. Hitachi Zosen Inova Appointed to Design, Build and Operate the Westfield Energy Centre in Scotland - Hitachi Zosen Inova (hz-inova.com)

169. EFW plant approved at Polmont landfill: https://www.falkirkherald.co.uk/news/environment/green-light-for-waste-energy-plant-at-polmont-landfill-site-3034062

170. FCC Drumgray RERC Energy Recovery Centre (fccenvironment.co.uk)

171. Mattia De Rose, ‘Economic assessment of producing and selling biomethane into a regional market’: Economic assessment of producing and selling biomethane into a regional market (sagepub.com)

172. SEPA, ‘Scottish Pollutant Release Inventory’: SPRI | Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA)

173. CarbonBrief, ‘Q&A: Why cement emissions matter for climate change’: Q&A: Why cement emissions matter for climate change - Carbon Brief

174. IEA Bioenergy, ‘Municipal Solid Waste and its Role in Sustainability’: 40_IEAPositionPaperMSW.pdf (ieabioenergy.com)

175. AECOM, ‘Next Generation Carbon Capture Technology’: Next generation carbon capture technology: technoeconomic analysis work package 6 (publishing.service.gov.uk)

176. Agile Energy Recovery (Inverurie) Ltd | IRF

177. Dunbar ERF (viridor.co.uk)

178. Brockwell Energy | Wetsfield Energy Centre

179. About Us - Earls Gate Energy Centre (egecl.com)

180. South Clyde Energy Centre

181. About – OldhallERF (oldhallenergy.co.uk)

182. Our facility – Millerhill (fccenvironment.co.uk)

183. s3179-0310-0003sdr_supporting_information_r2_redacted_redacted-1.pdf (sepa.org.uk)

184. Ash from Aberdeen incinerator will be stored and processed near Portlethen (pressandjournal.co.uk)

185. 2022_01_25_PR_MVV_Environment_Baldovie_Full_Service_Commencement.pdf

186. Developer and operator appointed for Perthshire Energy from Waste facility - Binn Group

187. https://www.tolvik.com/published-reports/view/uk-energy-from-waste-statistics-2021/

188. Tolviklkirkherald.co.uk/news/environment/green-light-for-waste-energy-plant-at-polmont-landfill-site-3034062" Green light for waste energy plant at Polmont landfill site | Falkirk Herald

189. FCC Drumgray RERC Energy Recovery Centre (fccenvironment.co.uk)

190. 09/01020/OUT | Erection of Biomass Combined Heat Power Plant and Wood Pellet Plant and formation of access road | Land East Of G A White Motors Charlesfield Industrial Estate St Boswells (scotborders.gov.uk)

191. Media Release: Shore Energy secures planning approval for £50m waste recycling and renewable energy generation facility at Carnbroe - allmediascotland…media jobs, media release service and media resources for all

192. Levenseat Announce new plans for Phase 2 of its Energy from Waste Power Plant - Levenseat

193. Glasgow RRE (viridor.co.uk)

194. Binn Ecopark - Binn Group

195. Typical calorific values of fuels - Forest Research

196. UK Energy from Waste Statistics - 2021 - Tolvik

197. Lars-Julian Vernersson, ‘Bio-LNG and CO₂ liquefaction investment for a biomethane plant with an output of 350 Nm3/h’: FULLTEXT01.pdf (diva-portal.org)

198. National Energy Technology Laboratory, ‘Cost of Capturing CO₂ from Industrial Sources’: Energy Analysis | netl.doe.gov

199. Roadmap of orca DAC facility: https://climeworks.com/roadmap/orca

200. MIT (2016), ‘Aberthaw Fact Sheet: Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage Project’: Carbon Capture and Sequestration Technologies @ MIT

201. MIT (2016), ‘Ferrybridge CCSPilot100+ Fact Sheet: Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage Project’: Carbon Capture and Sequestration Technologies @ MIT

202. Global Energy Monitor Wiki, ‘Caledonia Clean Energy Project’: Caledonia Clean Energy Project - Global Energy Monitor (gem.wiki)

203. Technip Energies (2022), ‘Acorn Hydrogen Project’: Acorn Hydrogen Project | Technip Energies

204. SGN H100 Fife, ‘A world-first green hydrogen gas network in the heart of Fife’: A world-first green hydrogen project from SGN | H100 Fife

205. Net Zero Aberdeen, ‘H2 Aberdeen Hydrogen is Here’: H2 Aberdeen Hydrogen is Here | Aberdeen City Council

206. Net Zero Teesside Power, ‘Net Zero Teesside Power’: Net Zero Teesside | About NZT Power

207. Whitetail Clean Energy, ‘Clean Power Clean Air Clean Jobs Teesside, UK’ ‘’: Whitetail Energy – Clean Power, Clean Air, Clean Jobs, The Whitetail Energy Project

208. SSE Thermal, ‘Keadby 3 carbon capture station capturing the potential of the Humber’: Keadby 3 Carbon Capture Power Station | SSE Thermal

209. BP, ‘bp plans UK’s largest hydrogen project’: bp plans UK’s largest hydrogen project | News | Home

210. Kellas Midstream, ‘Introducing a New Video about the Low Carbon Blue Hydrogen H2NorthEast Project on Teesside’: Kellas Midstream

211. Power Technology, ‘Hydrogen to Humber Saltend: will it kickstart the UK’s hydrogen economy?’: Hydrogen to Humber Saltend: will it kickstart the UK’s hydrogen economy? - Power Technology (archive.org)

212. Vertex Hydrogen, ‘Building a Low Carbon Future’: Vertex Hydrogen - Building a low carbon future

213. Tees Valley Energy Recovery Facility, ‘About the Project’: About the project – Tees Valley Energy Recovery Facility (tverf.co.uk)

214. Redcar Energy Centre, ‘About Redcar Energy Centre’: About Redcar Energy Centre - Redcar Energy Centre

215. HumberZero, ‘Documents, Technology Selection Report’: Documents - Humber Zero

216. Argus, ‘’ UK's Lindsey refinery joins Humber carbon capture plans: UK's Lindsey refinery joins Humber carbon capture plans | Argus Media

217. Origen, ‘Origen’s decarbonisation plans receive UK Government boost’: Origen’s decarbonisation plans receive UK Government boost - Origen Carbon Solutions

218. Hanson, ‘Our CCS feasibility study at Padeswood gets green light as HyNETs North West receives funding’: Our CCS feasibility study at Padeswood gets green light as HyNETs North West receives funding | Hanson UK

219. Viridor, ‘Runcorn ERF’: Runcorn EFW (viridor.co.uk)

220. Tarmac, ‘UK lime kiln in world first Net Zero hydrogen trial’: UK lime kiln in world first Net Zero hydrogen trial | Tarmac

221. Gasworld, ‘Essar Oil UK to build £360m carbon capture plant at Stanlow refinery’: Essar Oil UK to build £360m carbon capture plant at Stanlow refinery (gasworld.com)

222. Greenergy, ‘Protos Biofuels’ first commercial scale municipal waste to biofuels plant progresses to FEED stage’: Protos Biofuels’ first commercial scale municipal waste to biofuels plant progresses to FEED stage (greenergy.com)

223. Biomass Combustion, University of Arkansas System, Accessed at: https://www.uaex.uada.edu/environment-nature/energy/docs/FSA-1056.pdf

224. Climate Change Committee (2018), ‘Hydrogen in a low-carbon economy’: Hydrogen in a low-carbon economy - Climate Change Committee (theccc.org.uk)

225. Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs, “Advanced Thermal Treatment of Municiple Solid Waste”, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/221035/pb13888-thermal-treatment-waste.pdf

226. International Flame Research Foundation, “Energy-from-Waste technologies – Biological Treatment: Anaerobic Digestion”, https://ifrf.net/ifrf-blog/energy-from-waste-technologies-biological-treatment-anaerobic-digestion/

227. Keith et al (2018), ‘A Process for Capturing CO₂ from the Atmosphere’: A Process for Capturing CO₂ from the Atmosphere: Joule (cell.com)

228. Our facility – Millerhill (fccenvironment.co.uk)

229. Dunbar ERF

230. Ron Coghill on building Barclays’ world-class Glasgow campus | Culture | Barclays (home.barclays)

231. ENERGY Centre And 'Ambitious' Landscaping Plan Submitted For Barclays Glasgow Campus - reGlasgow

232. 2022_01_25_PR_MVV_Environment_Baldovie_Full_Service_Commencement.pdf

233. NESS Energy From Waste - Aberdeen - Indaver

234. Ash from Aberdeen incinerator will be stored and processed near Portlethen (pressandjournal.co.uk)

235. Agile Energy Recovery (Inverurie) Ltd

236. Home - Killoch EFW

237. Developer and operator appointed for Perthshire Energy from Waste facility - Binn Group

238. Brockwell Ener gy | Wetsfield Energy Centre

239. About – OldhallERF (oldhallenergy.co.uk)

240. About Us - Earls Gate Energy Centre (egecl.com)

241. https://www.power-technology.com/marketdata/south-clyde-energy-centre-uk/

242. United Kingdom Power Plants - Open Infrastructure Map (openinframap.org)

243. Avondale Quarry (Pilot) - UK Electricity Production

244. Energy from Waste - Levenseat energy from waste

245. Levenseat EfW Plant and MRF, Forth (riddellpm.co.uk)

246. Glasgow Recycling & Renewable Energy Centre (GRREC) - Glasgow City Council

247. Glasgow RRE (viridor.co.uk)

248. Partnership to develop Scottish EfW plant - letsrecycle.com

249. Levenseat Announce new plans for Phase 2 of its Energy from Waste Power Plant - Levenseat

250. Simple Search (argyll-bute.gov.uk)

251. Binn Ecopark - Binn Group

252. The Sixth Carbon Budget: The UK’s Path to Net Zero, Committee on Climate Change, Accessed at: https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/The-Sixth-Carbon-Budget-The-UKs-path-to-Net-Zero.pdf

253. Global CCS Institute, ‘Global Costs of Carbon Capture and Storage’: Global Costs of Carbon Capture and Storage - Global CCS Institute

254. IEAGHG, ‘Iron and Steel CCS Study (Techno-economics integrated steel mill)’: IEAGHG Document Manager

255. Mandova et al, ‘Achieving carbon-neutral iron and steelmaking in Europe through the deployment of bioenergy with carbon capture and storage’: Achieving carbon-neutral iron and steelmaking in Europe through the deployment of bioenergy with carbon capture and storage - ScienceDirect

256. Tanzer et al, ‘Can bioenergy with carbon capture and storage result in carbon negative steel?’: Can bioenergy with carbon capture and storage result in carbon negative steel? - ScienceDirect

257. BBC, ‘Dalzell and Clydebridge steel plants to make metal for wind turbine towers’: Dalzell and Clydebridge steel plants to make metal for wind turbine towers - BBC News