Understanding family support needs of people in prison custody: literature review

5 - Understanding the impacts of custody on families

Introduction

The impact of imprisonment on families spans multiple dimensions, including emotional, social, psychological, financial, relational, physical and developmental effects (Weaver and Nolan, 2015). This chapter explores the extensive literature on how imprisonment affects various family members, highlighting both the challenges and potential positive outcomes experienced by those with loved ones in custody.

The literature reviewed and referenced in this chapter mainly focuses on the negative consequences of imprisonment, often referred to as 'secondary prisonisation,' particularly affecting domestic partners/spouses and children (Aiello and McCorkel, 2018; Comfort, 2003; Witkowska-Paleń, 2020). Families are often perceived as collateral damage within the criminal justice system, with their victimisation overlooked in court proceedings (Buggy, 2016).

Impact on Relationships and Mental Health

The Prison Reform Trust's report, 'A Long Stretch', demonstrates the profound impact of imprisonment on personal relationships within the prison environment. Disruption of external relationships significantly affects inmates' wellbeing, motivation and prospects for parole and reintegration (Prison Reform Trust, 2024). Inmates often experience isolation and despair as personal relationships deteriorate during their imprisonment, with fears of re-entering society without a support network (Prison Reform Trust, 2024).

Where desired, maintaining a meaningful connection between imprisoned individuals and their families is essential for the wellbeing of all parties involved. However, as highlighted in the Paying the Price Report (Families Outside, 2023), the costs associated with maintaining these connections are substantial and place additional financial pressure on (often) already struggling families.

Financial and Social Strain

Research from Families Outside (2024a) highlights that imprisonment exacerbates poverty among children and families, particularly affecting single women with low incomes who bear the brunt of additional financial burdens.

This group experiences adverse effects on their physical and mental health due to the strain of meeting increased costs related to imprisonment. Families affected by imprisonment often face severe food and fuel poverty, social isolation and limited participation in community activities, perpetuating cycles of financial and social deprivation (Clancy and Maguire, 2017a).

Additionally, the stigma associated with being a visitor, particularly for women, adds emotional strain and isolation (Hannem, 2012).

The Howard League identifies particular challenges for those with family members on remand in terms of financial strain, emotional stress and the impact on family dynamics (Howard League, 2021).

Barriers such as travel costs, geographical constraints and limited local transportation options further impede families’ ability to maintain meaningful contact with imprisoned loved ones (Families Outside, 2023). The current support structure, designed to alleviate these challenges, specifically the Help with Prison Visits Scheme, is seen to be insufficient as it only reaches a fraction of eligible families and is inadequately publicised, leaving many in need without support (Families Outside, 2023). The scheme offers a contribution to the costs associated with travel and is means tested. Therefore, not all families meet the financial criteria to apply. Work is ongoing to promote the scheme, and a recent mileage increase has been implemented.

Impacts based on Relationship Status

Burton (2012) identifies that children, in particular, are more likely to suffer detrimental effects of imprisonment in cases where their mother is the one being held, (attributed mainly to the observation that women are more likely to have been the main custodian of their children’s care before being sent to prison).

Similarly, research suggests that women are more likely to experience negative impacts of separation from their children compared to male prisoners, including emotional problems linked to changes to their motherhood role (Donato et al., 2023). Women are also reported to be more likely to have concerns regarding the stigmatisation of their children as a result of their own imprisonment, and may discourage their children from visiting as a result (Lockwood et al., 2022).

The double impact for mothers of being a) imprisoned and b) perceived as not ‘good’ mothers, can result in their stigmatisation and isolation in prison. For example, prison routines can exacerbate a feeling of being a ‘bad mother’ - being unable to move from their seat in visiting rooms and unable to hug their child, and prison staff are not always seen as being supportive emotionally (Morgan and Leeson, 2023). McCarthy and Adams (2017b) found that mothers whose children were imprisoned had the added responsibility to maintain that parenting role despite the lack of support from some prison staff, and the reluctance of their sons (in particular) to have their mother intervene in such a masculine environment as a prison, as one mother in England commented to the authors:

“…if I have a concern and I phone in, the officer will say to him, ‘oh, your mother’s been on the phone again’ and he [son] gets it in the neck because I’ve phoned him, as if I’m being annoying and making their lives more difficult. So as a result he [son] tells me less about what’s worrying him” (ibid: 100).

Noting that increasing rates of female imprisonment are linked to increased pressure on grandparents who take up the role of primary caregivers (Burton, 2012), specific impacts for this group have been noted to include:

• grandparents providing care for their grandchildren with limited or no financial support (Burton, 2012)
• grandparents being forced to leave the workforce to take up this role causing financial, physical and emotional stress (Hairston and Addams, 2001)
• increased psychological problems, including depressive symptoms among grandparents (Moore and Convery, 2011).

Although less frequently covered in the literature reviewed, the impacts on romantic or close partner relationships due to imprisonment are also touched upon in some studies (La Vigne et al., 2005; Travis et al., 2005) with decreases in opportunities for intimacy resulting in relationship strains. Impacts on intimate relationships also include high risk of marital dissolution/divorce (Massoglia et al., 2011) most often due to feelings of secondary stigmatisation by the non-imprisoned spouse (which itself varies based on the nature and strength of the pre-custody relationship).

Children

Children are particularly vulnerable to the negative effects of parental imprisonment, including emotional distress, anxiety, confusion and post-traumatic stress disorder (Aiello and McCorkel, 2018; Bocknek et al., 2009; Clancy and Maguire, 2017a). They are overrepresented among those accessing mental health services and exhibit higher emotional needs compared to their peers (Lockwood et al., 2022). Moreover, children of prisoners face educational challenges, stigma, bullying, victimisation and social isolation, which heighten their risk of engaging in antisocial behaviour (Lockwood et al., 2022).

For imprisoned children and young people in the United States, their parents have to rely on prison staff regarding their child’s wellbeing and health (Muñiz et al., 2024). But for the young person in prison, visits can reduce isolation, help maintain a sense of identity, reduce misconduct and improve mental health and educational attainment (Muñiz et al., 2024).

It is important to note that in Scotland recent legislation, namely the Children (Care and Justice) (Scotland) Act 2024, commits to ending the placement of under-18s in Young Offenders institutions and to accommodate them in residential or secure accommodation instead.

For visiting children, research has shown that imprisonment - and indeed the prison environment and staff (Lockwood et al., 2022) - can have negative impacts on children’s emotional state including being the cause of anxiety, confusion and concern for children (Aiello and McCorkel, 2018), as well as post-traumatic stress (Bocknek et al., 2009).

Gender differences in impacts may also exist between children, it has been shown, with boys being more likely to exhibit externalising problems compared to girls (including greater risk of developing criminal or antisocial behaviour), while girls may have a greater propensity to internalising behaviours compared to boys (Kinner et al., 2007; Murray and Farrington, 2005; Murray et al., 2014). Overall, girls with a family member in prison may also bear greater psychological costs than boys, it has been found (Domżalska et al., 2022).

Impacts on children are also shown to vary depending on a number of mediating factors (Brookes, 2018), including:

• the child's age at separation and any previous parent-child separations
• the sentence nature and length
• pre-existing bonds/relationship between the parent and child (pre custody)
• availability of support.

Brookes (2018) again encourages researchers and practitioners not to consider children of prisoners as a homogenous group, but to always consider the multitude of different factors that will play a part in their experience, as follows:

“Some have contact, some do not. Some have mothers in prison, some fathers. Some want to understand their parent's crime and why they did what they did; some would prefer not to know. Some children have parents serving long, or indeterminate sentences; some have parents who serve short sentences and might go in and out of custody in a seemingly never ending revolving door. Some of these children feel angry, some relieved and some are desperately sad. Many blame themselves and most of these children feel a whole array of emotions often at the same time.” (Brookes, 2018: 271)

Clancy and Maguire (2017a) identify that families of prisoners experience financial hardship, emotional stress, stigma and isolation from social networks, as well as increased risk of separation/divorce from imprisoned partners. Children face issues like behavioural problems, mental health issues and educational difficulties, including attendance issues.

Research has shown that children of prisoners can experience non-emotional impacts too, including changes in their schedules and routines (Aiello and McCorkel, 2018).

Loureiro (2010), in a report prepared for Scotland’s Commissioner for Children and Young People (SCCYP), lists deterioration in behaviour, in physical and mental health and in social and financial circumstances, in housing and care arrangements, schooling, victimisation, substance misuse and risk of future offending, among the negative impacts of parental imprisonment.

For children, negative impacts linked to educational attainment and engagement also feature in the literature (Morgan and Gill, 2013).

Stigmatisation

Murray et al. (2014) warns against targeting services specifically to children of prisoners based on perceptions that they may be 'at risk' of future criminal behaviour, as this can have unintended negative consequences by making children feel labelled.

Granja (2016) notes that in highly impoverished neighbourhoods in Portugal, imprisonment is so prevalent that relatives do not feel the need to conceal it, suggesting stigma may be less of an issue in some community contexts.

Meek (2008) suggests that siblings feel reluctant to inform teachers at school about their sibling's incarceration due to fears of stigmatisation, pity or guilt by association. Instead, the young people in this research drew crucial informal support from close friends and relatives to help them process the feelings of sadness, anger and loss. Family and social networks played an important role in providing emotional support to cope with the negative impacts of having a sibling in prison. This highlights the need for non-judgmental assistance.

One quote from the ‘This is my Story’ research carried out by Families Outside demonstrates the negative feelings that stigma can create in children (Families Outside, 2024c):

“Life is hard. It can cause a lot of arguments and people can say things about my dad. Having a family member in prison makes me very angry and sad.”

Positive Impacts and Unique Considerations

Although less of a focus across the research in the literature reviewed, there is some evidence that prison can have positive impacts on relationships for the period of the sentence, with prisoners having more contact with families while in prison (e.g. Mowen and Visher, 2016), with increases in both familial emotional support and familial interactions. This same research showed a corresponding decrease in the same once the prisoner had been released.

Imprisonment of a family member has also been shown to have positive impacts where this reduces or removes potential for victimisation of family members, for example, protection from domestic or sexual violence or abuse by a family perpetrator (Buggy, 2016; Condry and Smith, 2019).

Bucerius et al. (2020) also note that, for some of the most vulnerable women, prison can provide a temporary refuge from the challenges they face on the outside, including financial hardship and marginalisation. Feedback from a sample of female prisoners showed reductions in exposure to/consumption of drugs while in prison, offering a period of stability in their living conditions, access to better nutrition and medical interventions, and a ‘break’ from their otherwise chaotic lives.

Although only identified in one study, there is also evidence that removal of contact with others, including solitary confinement, can benefit some prisoners (Aranda-Hughes et al., 2020a). The study suggests that it may provide an opportunity not to have to “deal with others,” as well as a chance to focus on the prisoner’s own physical and mental health needs uninterrupted, and to ease the discomfort of prison life for those who have trouble adjusting to shared prison spaces.

Impacts from other Factors

Weaver and Nolan (2015) note that the impacts of imprisonment for families can be greatly influenced by a number of variables and characteristics including, for example, the nature of the offence, relational dynamics, care and living arrangements and social supports available to families, all of which will be unique to each individual family. They state the need for “the identification and completion of individualised and holistic assessments, of the children and families of prisoners that include factors at the level of the individual, wider family and community.” (p.2) Any future mapping or modelling of support needs must, therefore, adopt a person-centred and family-centred approach with plans that are tailored to individual circumstances and needs, rather than any ‘generic’ support model being appropriate.

Gaps in the Literature

Simultaneous Family Imprisonment

Deacon (2021) highlights a unique and understudied demographic: young people who are simultaneously imprisoned with a parent or sibling. This group is often overlooked in research, policy and practice concerning familial imprisonment.

Recognising these familial relationships within the prison context is necessary. Simultaneous imprisonment of family members can have both positive and negative impacts. For young people in prison, having a sibling or parent also in prison can provide comfort, but can also add stress and responsibility. Understanding this duality is crucial for addressing the unique stressors and emotional wellbeing of young people, highlighting the need for tailored support (Deacon, 2021).

Life Sentences and the Impact on Families

A rare qualitative study of the families’ perceptions of life sentence imprisonment of young men in Australia concluded that: “Supporting family members serving a life sentence is an incredibly challenging and emotionally taxing experience” (Tubex and Gately, 2024: 218). The authors pointed out that many of the parents would be in their 70s before their children were released and had little knowledge of the criminal justice process, felt discrimination from police, community and courts alike, and experienced inevitable uncertainty of an indefinite sentence length.

Summary

This chapter has highlighted the multi-faceted impacts of imprisonment on families, demonstrating the extensive emotional, financial, social and psychological challenges they face.

The literature consistently shows that children, spouses and extended relatives bear significant burdens as a result of imprisonment of a family member. Financial strain, social isolation, disrupted relationships and mental health challenges are common experiences for these families, compounded by systemic barriers such as inadequate support services and social stigma.