Environment strategy: global environmental impacts of consumption and production

2. Executive Summary

The Environment Strategy for Scotland sets out the Scottish Government’s vision for restoring Scotland’s natural environment and playing our full role in tackling the global climate and nature emergencies (Scottish Government, 2020a). One of the strategy’s outcomes is that “We are responsible global citizens with a sustainable international footprint”.^[1] This report will support the development of a ‘pathway’ for achieving that outcome by gathering evidence on the nature of Scotland’s international environmental impact.

A rapid evidence review was undertaken to identify potential environmental impacts arising outwith Scotland due to consumption and production within Scotland. The review was informed by related work undertaken by Zero Waste Scotland (Conde et al., 2023) and the European Union Joint Research Centre (e.g. Crenna et al., 2019) into materials flows, and environmental footprints and impacts undertaken.

Insights to materials flows was complemented by evidence on the principal sectors of consumption and production in Scotland, identified as services (75%); production (mining and quarrying, manufacturing, electricity and gas supply, and water supply and waste; 18%); construction (6%); and agriculture, forestry and fishing (1%) (Fraser of Allander, 2020). Intersecting these sectors are the resources required in the economy of aggregates, cobalt, copper, lithium, palm oil, phosphorus, lead, rare earths, timber and tin (SNIFFER, 2011a, b). To these, resources of energy (as producer and user) and sugar (reflecting significance in food and drink).

The principal findings of the review are summarised below:

Scotland’s reliance on materials extracted overseas

Approximately 75% of the extraction of the raw materials required for production in Scotland is from outwith its borders (i.e. including the rest of the UK). This is estimated as being 60.3 million tonnes (c.50% of Scotland’s total material footprint). [Section 5, page 16]. Evidence about geographic origins of raw materials used in economic activities in Scotland suggests that some form of adverse environmental impact is likely to be created on each continent. Some materials will be imported directly from source countries (e.g. timber), and others may be used at one or more links in supply chains as components for use further along the chain. [Section 5, page 18].

Reductions in the impacts of domestic consumption can be achieved, but may be at the expense of increasing the overall global environmental burdens (Sala et al., 2019) [Section 7, page 43]. However, more in-depth analysis is required in relation to existing recycling and re-use of materials from Scotland, and strategies developed for reducing adverse environmental impacts at both territorial and global levels [Section 8, page 47].

Environmental impacts on land use overseas of resource extraction and production

Often, changes in land use are driven by sourcing resources for a broad range of raw materials or production processes. Such land use changes may be direct conversions out of natural systems into unnatural uses (e.g. tailings dams for mining), or indirect changes, such as forestry to agriculture (e.g. vegetable crops), and subsequently to a secondary land use (e.g. production of oil palm, Elaeis guineensis). [Section 6.1, page 20].

Adverse environmental impacts of some types of production activities characteristics on land use are often interlinked. For example, sugarcane production processes create negative impacts on land use, reduces above and below ground biodiversity, leads to poorer air quality, increases in GHG emissions, depletion of nutrients, acidification, eutrophication, deterioration in water quality, and stresses on water resources. The magnitude of impacts will be greater in some areas than others, influenced by climatic conditions at source, site characteristics, processing and transportation, and the nature of the antecedent land use being affected. [Section 6.2, page 24].

Overseas environmental impacts associated with Scotland’s consumption of food and textiles

Food systems are major drivers of climate change, changes in land use, depletion of freshwater resources, and pollution of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, through excessive nitrogen and phosphorus inputs. [Section 6.2, page 24]. Food consumption is responsible for between 20% and 30% of the environmental impacts of total consumption.

The current European diet adversely affects biodiversity at EU and global scales, with eight products identified as contributing to more than 75% of total damage to biodiversity. The production of meat products and agricultural land use are impacting key hotspots of biodiversity, and are significant in their contributions to acidification, eutrophication, land use, water use, and climate change [Section 6.2, page 24].

Pesticides are extensively used in producing raw materials for food and drink manufacturing processes. Consequences of dispersal include contamination of water courses leading to the decline in fish and amphibian populations, habitat degradation leading to loss of bird and insect pollinators [Section 6.2, page 24].

Environmental impacts associated with Scotland’s sugar consumption are embedded in, and dependent on, the food and drink industry rather than the sugar production and refining industry. Agricultural processes associated with sugarcane production have adverse environmental impacts on biodiversity, and the quality of water, air and soil. Land use changes for its production (e.g. deforestation of rainforest ecosystems for agricultural use) also lead to negative environmental externalities such as poor air, increased GHG emissions, depletion of nutrients, acidification, eutrophication, water quality deterioration, and stresses on water resources [Section 6.4.1, page 37].

Environmental impacts of white sugar production from sugar beet, and byproducts (molasses and beet pulp) include global warming, eutrophication, and emissions of particulate matter. These impacts reflect the fossil fuels used in production processes, atmospheric emissions from cultivation of the soil, agrochemical production, diesel use in transport and machinery use [Section 6.4.1, page 37].

The UK is a net importer of fish and seafood products, the majority of which originate from China, Norway, Iceland, Ecuador and Vietnam. The most commonly imported species are tuna, cod, salmon, shrimp and prawns, and haddock

Environmental impacts from fishing systems (e.g. ocean floor and seabed’s due to bottom trawling) include greenhouse gas emissions, consequences of land use conversion (e.g. tropical coastal lowlands of America and Asia into shrimp ponds), and causes of biodiversity loss in oceans of overfishing and bycatch [Section 6.4.3, page 41].

Overseas environmental impacts associated with inputs for agriculture and agricultural activities

Phosphorus is a key nutrient in crop and livestock production. However, agriculture in Scotland, and the UK, is dependent on sources of phosphate rock which is mined in a limited number of countries, and associated imports of fertilisers, feeds and foods from a limited range of countries. Mining phosphate rock takes significant quantities of scarce resources (e.g. water, energy), contributing to water, air and soil pollution, GHG emissions, landscape degradation and solid waste generation. Even small quantities in the natural environment can lead to water quality problems such as eutrophication and harmful algal growth. [Section 6.3.1, page 32].

Overseas environmental impacts associated with mining for transition minerals (e.g. for wind turbines and EV batteries) used in Scotland, and materials for manufacturing consumer goods (e.g. electronics)

Transitions to a low carbon economy and modern consumer goods rely upon minerals which can only be sourced from overseas, the extraction of which creates adverse environmental impacts. Amongst those minerals are Rare Earths such as neodymium which is used in magnets in motors or generators which are used in wind turbines and electrical vehicles, low-energy lightbulbs and mercury lamps; and, hydride batteries used in hybrid cars, smartphones, photovoltaics, and materials for the storage of hydrogen for use as a fuel. Rare earths are mined using open cast methods, creating adverse impacts on water, soil and air quality, and replace antecedent land uses. [Section 6.3.2, page 33].

Global markets for lithium are dominated by batteries (80%), ceramics and glass (7%), and alloys for aircraft, high-speed trains, bicycle frames. Two thirds of lithium production is from lithium rich natural brines which is chemically and water intensive, and produces large volumes of waste, with adverse impacts on water quality, vegetation structure, and distribution of local flora and fauna. Lithium extraction from ores is predominantly from open cast mines, with consequential complete loss of existing habitats and topsoil, rocks, changes in water pathways, water contamination, generate air emissions and deposition, and production of waste [Section 6.3.2, page 33].

Little has been done in tackling the significant environment impacts associated with recycling, reuse or disposal of indium, which is extensively in consumer and business goods, such as liquid crystal displays, touch screens, flatscreen TVs and solar panels [Section 6.3.2, page 33].

Copper is a key input of equipment for tackling climate change through renewable energy, notably in photovoltaics and wind energy, electrical equipment (e.g. wiring, motors), construction (e.g. roofing, plumbing), and industrial machinery (e.g. heat exchangers). The nature of the environmental Impacts of copper extraction vary by geographical region (e.g. arid compared to tropical) and mining process. For example, open-pit methods have associated tailing dams and waste pits create environmental impacts on antecedent land uses and their associated habitats.

When mine facilities fail, notably tailings dams, the impacts on humans and environmental damage can be considerable [Section 6.3.3, page 35].

The mining of tin can impair valuable natural or cultural assets, with extensive areas damaged by gravel pump mining on land, and by off-shore extraction from the seabed by suction and mechanical dredging (e.g. Indonesia). The open-pit form of mining has the most significant environmental impacts on land use and habitats through the requirement for external waste dumps to be located close to operational areas of extraction [Section 6.3.3, page 35].

Steel is used in aerospace, energy and general manufacturing, which in turn requires inputs of iron, and thus iron ore. The extraction of iron ore directly or indirectly creates impacts on air, water, habitats and land use, and the failure of infrastructure, such as tailings dams, leading to considerable adverse environmental, social and economic impacts [Section 6.3.3, page 35].

Sustainable supply chains and trade

The types of environmental impacts outwith Scotland which are associated with produce supply chains are across the set of EU 2017 impact categories. Emerging obligations and best practices, such as the European Union Mandatory Due Diligence, require a detailed, up to date, supply chain database (e.g. sources of extraction, manufacturing or re- or after use operations) for use by businesses to identify impacts attributable to production and use of materials, [Section 4, pages 15 & 16]. This is consistent with recommendation of Scottish Enterprise of mapping supply chains of products. Such information is not available, at least publicly, and thus the magnitude of environmental impacts has not been assessed.

Supporting international efforts to tackle deforestation

Deforestation is a significant cause of the loss of biodiversity. Primary pressures for deforestation are for timber extraction (used for construction, conversion to agriculture such as livestock grazing, and for mining and extractive industries and associated infrastructure (e.g. roads) [Section 6.2, page 24]. Between 1990 and 2008, 53% of global forests were cleared to produce agricultural commodities (European Commission, 2013). Between 2000 and 2012, 71% of deforestation in tropical areas, 70% in Latin America and 33% in Africa, was driven by commercial agriculture [Section 6.2, page 24]. The impacts of deforestation on biodiversity will be greater if they are on intact forests, which is a subset of primary forests which are very rich sites of biodiversity and largely undisturbed by human activity, compared to the loss of primary forests.

The loss of biodiversity can also be expected if intact forests, never previously harvested, or primary forests are affected by the sourcing of wood for fuel [Section 6.2, page 24]. Environmental impacts of timber extraction and supply occur throughout the wood supply chain from harvesting, sawmills to final products and their disposal. Certification schemes such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) provide some assurance over the sustainability of the sources of such raw materials [Section 6.2, page 26].

Potential negative impacts of UK demand on the planet’s most ecologically sensitive and biodiverse forests, could be reduced by a higher proportion of timber consumption sourced from domestically grown timber [Section 6.2, page 24].

Overseas environmental impacts associated with waste exports from Scotland

The EU Waste Framework Directive sets out management principles for the prevention of waste, or else its re-use, recycling, recovery or disposal. Studies demonstrate scope for reducing adverse environmental impacts through recycling (e.g. of steel), and challenges faced in tackling more recent manufactured components (e.g. wind turbine blades) [Section 7; page 43]. However, environmental impacts on water, air, soil can arise from processes of recycling, with some such impacts likely to be in the geographic areas to which materials are exported, such as the 82.8% of paper and card exported to 8 countries in the Global South [Section 7; page 43].

Overseas impacts associated with new and emerging areas of economic activity

New sectors of economic activity emerging in Scotland can be expected to have some environmental impacts, but about which there is currently limited information. An example is the space sector, which prospectively creates environmental impacts in space, and needs for handling, re-using or recycling waste in Scotland from the operationalisation of spaceports. [Section 6.4.4, page 42; Section 9, page 49].

The importance of transitioning towards a circular economy

Minimising adverse environmental impacts of consumption and production in Scotland, requires greater knowledge of the actual impacts realised by each stage of the lifecycle of each component of products. Such understanding can, in turn, be used to inform consumers of the environmental impacts associated with the items they purchase and use. Means of providing such information include product passports, as envisaged in the EU provisions for setting eco-design requirements for sustainable products (European Parliament and The Council of The European, 2022). [Section 9; page 49].

The importance of transitioning towards more sustainable lifestyles, including diets

Currently, European diets adversely affect biodiversity at EU and global scales, with food consumption responsible for between 20% and 30% of the environmental impacts of total consumption. Eight products contribute to more than 75% of total damage to biodiversity (beef meat, pork meat, poultry meat, cheese, sunflower oil, butter, milk and eggs). Agricultural land use and the production of meat impact key hotspots of biodiversity, and are significant contributors to acidification, eutrophication, land use, water use, and climate change (Crenna et al., 2021). [Section 6.2, page 24].