Unpaid care and the gender pay gap: Literature review of recent evidence

1. Introduction

1.1 Purpose of the review

This review has been carried out in response to the aims of the Fair Work Action Plan ^[1] which reflects the Scottish Government’s commitment to promoting inclusive and fair workplaces in Scotland, and acknowledges the importance of understanding the contribution of unpaid care on the gender pay gap.

Specifically, the associated Evidence Plan on Fair Work ^[2] identifies the need for an evidence review on how unpaid care influences the gender pay gap. This reflects the objective of developing and enhancing data and evidence around Fair Work in Scotland.

This review therefore looks to answer the research question: How unpaid caring responsibilities (childcare and social care) influence determinants of the gender pay gap (e.g., working pattern, occupation, employment experience/job tenure).

1.2 Approach

This literature review was conducted over the period June to September 2024^[1], and focused on emerging literature published in the last five years (2019-2024), although some publications from previous years have also been examined. It was also limited to material written in the English language. It includes studies from the UK and other European countries (including but not limited to the Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Spain, Finland and Turkey), as well as a systematic review covering the US, Canada, Australia, UK and the EU.

It focused on determinants of the gender pay gap, such as, but not restricted to, the factors identified by the Office for National Statistics (2018)^[3] and Olsen et al.^[4] (2018, e.g., working pattern, occupational segregation, employment experience, job tenure).

The reviewed literature included peer-reviewed academic articles and grey literature, empirical research (i.e., quantitative and qualitative) and systematic and thematic reviews.

A near final draft of this review, including key findings, were shared with the Fair Work Oversight Group for awareness in June 2025.

1.3 Evidence Gaps

1.3.1 Limited Source Evidence

Some of the evidence on the impact of care on the determinants of the gender pay gap are supported by limited evidence, due in part to the review omitting studies from before 2019.

• Limited number of studies indicate that there is a lower probability of career progression as well as higher probability of mothers working in fixed term contracts in terms of unpaid childcare. More evidence is required to gain a fuller understanding of the impact of care on women’s occupational choices.
• There are fewer sources that support the impact of gender differences in unpaid care, in comparison to childcare, on the determinants of the gender pay gap. More evidence on the comparison between male and female carers would increase understanding of the intersection between work, earnings and care.

1.3.2 Limited Evidence on Minority Groups

The present review provides limited sources detailing the effects of unpaid care and childcare on individuals from different minority groups and the socio-economic and disability characteristics of carers were not highlighted.

• The studies reviewed on childcare focused mainly on heterosexual non-adopting couples, with little information on the demographics of carers.
• Ethnic minorities are overrepresented in unpaid childcare providers ^[11], but the present review provides limited sources detailing the effects of unpaid care and childcare on individuals from different ethnic groups. Understanding differences across unpaid childcare givers and carers of different ethnicities is important to understand the extent to which caring responsibilities could exacerbate existing racial inequalities.
• The socio-economic and disability characteristics of carers were not highlighted in the reviews examined. Examining these would lead to a better understanding of carer choices through the perspective of household income and health.