Review of Abortion Law in Scotland Expert Group: report

Footnotes

1 Scottish Government. (2024, August 21). Abortion Law Review Expert Group: Terms of reference.

2 Dickens, B. M. (1966). Abortion and the law. Macmillan; Lane Committee (1974).

3 Report of the Committee on the Working of the Abortion Act 1967 (The Lane Report) (Vol. 1, paragraph 506). Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.

4 Potts, M., Diggory, P., & Peel, J. (1977). Abortion.

5 Ferris, P. (1966). The nameless. Hutchinson.

6 Munday, D. (2023). Interview by Jane O’Neill. In S. Sheldon, M. Davis, J. O’Neill, & C. Parker, The Abortion Act 1967: A biography of UK law. Cambridge University Press.

7 Baird, D. (1966). A fifth freedom? Eugenics Review, 58(4), 195–204.

8 House of Commons Science and Technology Committee. (2007). Scientific developments relating to the Abortion Act 1967: Twelfth report of session 2006–07 (Vol. 1, HC 1045-I). The Stationery Office.

9 Jones, R. K., & Jerman, J. (2017). Population group abortion rates and lifetime incidence of abortion: United States, 2008–2014. American Journal of Public Health, 107(12), 1904–1909.

10 Chan, A., & Keane, R. J. (2004). Prevalence of induced abortion in a reproductive lifetime. American Journal of Epidemiology, 159(5), 475–479.

11 Raymond, E. G., & Grimes, D. A. (2012). The comparative safety of legal induced abortion and childbirth in the United States. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 119(2), 215–219.

12 MBRRACE-UK. (2024). Saving Lives, Improving Mothers’ Care: Lessons learned to inform maternity care from the UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity 2020–22. National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford.

13 The Lane Report recorded a maternal mortality rate of 9-126 deaths per 100,000 abortions (depending on which of the two surgical procedures then available were used) and an average length of hospital stay of 7.8 days in 1968. Volume 2, para 165.

14 Public Health Scotland. (2024). Termination of pregnancy statistics: Year ending December 2024.

15 S Sheldon (2016) ‘British Abortion Law: Speaking from the Past to Govern the Future’ 79(2) Modern Law Review 283-316.

16 Scottish Government. (2023). Programme for Government 2023 to 2024.

17 Center for Reproductive Rights. The world’s abortion laws.

18 Scottish Government. (2023, March 22). Telemedicine early medical abortion at home: Evaluation.

19 Scottish Government. (2024, December 4). Updated approval on taking abortion medications outwith the hospital or clinic: CMO(2024)21.

20 Scottish Government. (2024, August 21). Abortion Law Review Expert Group: Terms of reference.

21 Scottish Government. (2017). Health and social care standards: My support, my life.

22UK Parliament. (1967). Abortion Act 1967.

23 UK Parliament. (1990). Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990.

24United Kingdom. (1991). The Abortion (Scotland) Regulations 1991 (S.I. 1991 No. 460 (S.41)).

25House of Lords. (1981). Royal College of Nursing of the United Kingdom v Department of Health and Social Security [1981] AC 800, [1981] 1 All ER 545 (HL).

26 Scottish Government. (2024, December 4). Abortion – Updated approval on taking abortion medications outwith the hospital or clinic: CMO(2024)21.

27 The Act puts this obligation on the Secretary of State in respect of Scotland. The Secretary of State’s functions have been devolved to the Scottish Ministers, so references to the “Secretary of State” are to be read as the “Scottish Ministers”.

28Scottish Government. (2022, April 14). Notification of terminations of pregnancy to the Chief Medical Officer: CMO(2022)16.

29 Scottish Government. (2022, April). Direction to Health Boards under the Abortion (Scotland) Regulations 1991 – Annex B.

30 Public Health Scotland. (2025, May 27). Termination of pregnancy statistics: Year ending December 2024.

31 UK Supreme Court. (2014). Doogan v Greater Glasgow and Clyde Health Board [2014] UKSC 68, [2015] SC (UKSC) 32, [2015] SLT 25.

32 Dr Mary Neal and Dr Johnathan Brown (2025). Scottish Government Abortion Law Review: Offences [unpublished stakeholder submission].

33 United Kingdom. (1809). Concealment of Birth (Scotland) Act 1809, c. 14.

34 The Human Medicines Regulations 2012: United Kingdom. (2012). The Human Medicines Regulations 2012 (S.I. 2012 No. 1916).

35 Scottish Government. (2002). The Adults with Incapacity (Specified Medical Treatments) (Scotland) Regulations 2002 (S.S.I. 2002 No. 275).

36 UK Supreme Court. (2015). Montgomery v Lanarkshire Health Board [2015] UKSC 11.

37 Engender. (2024). Outdated, harmful and never in the public interest: The urgent need to modernise Scotland’s abortion law and prevent prosecutions.

38 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (RCOG). (n.d.). Involvement of the police and external agencies following abortion, pregnancy loss and unexpected delivery: Guidance for healthcare staff.

39 Wellings, K., Scott, R. H., Sheldon, S., McCarthy, O., Palmer, M. J., Shawe, J., Meiksin, R., Lewandowska, M., Cameron, S. T., Reiter, J., French, R. S., SACHA Study Team. (2025). Attitudes towards the regulation and provision of abortion among healthcare professionals in Britain: Cross-sectional survey data from the SACHA Study. BMJ Sexual & Reproductive Health, 51 (2), 111–121.

40 World Health Organization. (2023). Human rights and health [Fact sheet].

41 United Nations Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. (2017). Concluding observations on the initial report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (CRPD/C/GBR/CO/1). United Nations.

42 World Health Organization. (2022). Abortion care guideline.

43 Committee on the Rights of the Child. (2013). General comment No. 15 (2013) on the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health (art. 24), U.N. Doc. CRC/C/GC/15.

44 Grover, A. (2011). Interim report of the Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health (UN Doc. A/66/254, §28). United Nations.

45 United Nations Human Rights Council, Working Group on Discrimination Against Women and Girls. (2021). Women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis (U.N. Doc. A/HRC/47/38).

46 House of Commons Science and Technology Committee. (2007). Scientific developments relating to the Abortion Act 1967 (Twelfth Report of Session 2006–07, HC 1045-I). The Stationery Office.

47 World Health Organization. (2022). Abortion care guideline.

48 Engender (2024)

49 High Court of Justice (Administrative Court). (2019). British Pregnancy Advisory Service v Secretary of State for Health and Social Care [2019] EWHC 1397 (Admin).

50 Sheldon, S., Davis, G., O’Neill, J., & Parker, C. (2019). The Abortion Act (1967): A biography. Legal Studies, 39(1), 18–35.

51 Public Health Scotland. (2024). Termination of pregnancy statistics – Year ending December 2023.

52 House of Commons Science and Technology Committee. (2007). Scientific developments relating to the Abortion Act 1967 (Twelfth Report of Session 2006–07, HC 1045-I). The Stationery Office.

53 Chabdu, A. (2024, October 29). How are attitudes towards abortion in Britain changing? National Centre for Social Research.

54 Gray, A., & Wellings, K. (2020). Is public opinion in support of decriminalisation? In S. Sheldon & K. Wellings (Eds.), Decriminalising abortion in the UK: What would it mean? (pp. 17–36). Policy Press.

55 World Health Organization. (2018). Global Abortion Policies Database.

56 General Medical Council. (2013). Good medical practice.

57 UK Supreme Court. (2015). Montgomery v Lanarkshire Health Board [2015] UKSC 11, para. 81.

58 Supreme Court of Canada. (1988). R. v. Morgentaler, [1988] 1 S.C.R. 30.

59 Close the Gap, Engender, Rape Crisis Scotland, Scottish Women’s Aid, Scottish Women’s Budget Group, Young Women’s Movement, Zero Tolerance (2024) [Unpublished Stakeholder Submission]

60 WHO (2022). Abortion Care Guideline

61 British Association of Perinatal Medicine. (2019). Perinatal management of extreme preterm birth before 27 weeks of gestation: A framework for practice.

62 Smith, L. K., van Blankenstein, E., Fox, G., Seaton, S. E., Martínez-Jiménez, M., Petrou, S., & Battersby, C. (2023). Effect of national guidance on survival for babies born at 22 weeks’ gestation in England and Wales: Population based cohort study. BMJ Medicine, 2, e000579.

63 These submissions also sometimes suggested the need for use of fetal analgesia for abortions after 12 weeks, and this is considered further in Pathways below.

64 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2022). Fetal awareness: Evidence review.

65 Antenatal Results and Choices (2024) [Unpublished stakeholder submission]

66 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, British Paediatric Association, Royal College of General Practitioners, Royal College of Midwives, British Medical Association, & Department of Health and Social Security. (1985). Report on fetal viability and clinical practice.

67 Qattea, I., Aly, H., Othman, H., Kattea, M. O., Alsabri, M., Hamzah, M., & Karnati, S. (2022). Survival of infants born at periviable gestation: The US national database. The Lancet Regional Health – Americas, 14, 100330.

68 Abortion Rights Coalition of Canada. (2025, June 19). Statistics – Abortion in Canada.

69 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2022). Fetal awareness: Evidence review.

70 Mayall, K., Ajayi, L., & Gruer, C. (2025). Global progress in abortion law reform: A comparative legal analysis since the International Conference on Population and Development (1994–2023). Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters, 33(1), 1 15.

71 Center for Reproductive Rights. (n.d.). The world’s abortion laws.

72 Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women. (2018). Inquiry concerning the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland under article 8 of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

73 UK Supreme Court. (2018). In the matter of an application by the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission for Judicial Review (Northern Ireland) [2018] UKSC 27.

74 House of Commons Women and Equalities Committee. (2019). Abortion law in Northern Ireland (Eighth Report of Session 2017–19, HC 1584).

75 United Kingdom. (2020). The Abortion (Northern Ireland) Regulations 2020 (S.I. 2020 No. 345).

76 Government of South Australia. (2021). Termination of Pregnancy Act 2021 (SA).

77 Ministry of Health. (2024). Abortion Services Aotearoa New Zealand: Annual Report 2024. Ministry of Health. (pg.16)

78 Ministry of Health. (2024). Abortion Services Aotearoa New Zealand: Annual Report 2024. Ministry of Health.

79 As above, pg. 16

80 Stats NZ. (2020, June 16). *Abortion statistics: Year ended December 2019*.

81 Chabdu, A. (2024, October 29). How are attitudes towards abortion in Britain changing? National Centre for Social Research.

82 UK Supreme Court. (2015). Montgomery v Lanarkshire Health Board [2015] UKSC 11, para. 81.

83 WHO. (2022). Abortion Care Guideline.

84 Insofar as these submissions also raised concerns regarding coercion and the need for effective safeguarding, they are considered in more detail in Pathways below.

85Houghton, R., & Houghton, R. (2017). Re-visioning evidence: Reflections on the recent controversy around gender selective abortion in the UK. European Journal of Women's Studies, 24(3), 263–277.

86 Department of Health and Social Care. (2023). Sex ratios at birth in the United Kingdom: 2017 to 2021. GOV.UK.

87 Court of Appeal (Civil Division). (2022). Crowter v Secretary of State for Health and Social Care [2022] EWCA Civ 1559.

88 Don’t Screen Us Out. (n.d.). Campaign for equality for people with Down’s syndrome in the UK’s abortion law.

89 Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. (2017). Concluding observations on the initial report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (CRPD/C/GBR/CO/1), para. 13.

90 The UK Court of Appeal recently found that Ground E was not incompatible with Articles 8 and 14 of the European Convention of Human Rights, as a fetus has never been accepted as a legal person capable of holding rights under the Convention. R (Crowter and ors) v Secretary of State for Health [2021] EWHC 2536 (Admin); Crowter v SSHSC EWCA Civ [2022]

91 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2024, May 10). Specialists in fetal medicine – concerns over amendments to alter abortion limits.

92 High Court of Justice. (2021). Crowter and others v Secretary of State for Health and Social Care [2021] EWHC 2536 (Admin).

93 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2024, May 10). Specialists in fetal medicine – concerns over amendments to alter abortion limits.

94 Heinke, D., Isenburg, J. L., Stallings, E. B., Short, T. D., Le, M., Fisher, S., Shan, X., Kirby, R. S., Nguyen, H. H., Nestoridi, E., Nembhard, W. N., Romitti, P. A., Salemi, J. L., & Lupo, P. J.; National Birth Defects Prevention Network. (2023). Prevalence of structural birth defects among infants with Down syndrome, 2013–2017: A US population-based study. Birth Defects Research.

95 Public Health Scotland. (2024). Pregnancy screening for Down’s syndrome, Edwards’ syndrome and Patau’s syndrome in Scotland: 1 April 2019 to 31 March 2022.

96 High Court of Justice. (2021). Crowter and others v Secretary of State for Health and Social Care [2021] EWHC 2536 (Admin).

97 Courts and Tribunals Judiciary. (2022). Crowter v Secretary of State for Health and Social Care – Summary.

98 As above

99 UK Government. (1929). Infant Life (Preservation) Act 1929, 19 & 20 Geo. 5 c.34.

100 United Nations Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. (2017). Concluding observations on the initial report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (CRPD/C/GBR/CO/1). United Nations.

101 YouGov. (2023, June 28). Where does the British public stand on abortion in 2023?

102 As above

103 Johnson, B. R. Jr., Keogh, L., & Norman, W. V. (2020). What would be the likely impact of decriminalisation on the incidence, timing, provision and safety of abortion? In S. Sheldon & K. Wellings (Eds.), Decriminalising abortion in the UK: What would it mean? (pp. 99–126). Policy Press.

104 Sheldon, S., & Fletcher, J. (2017). Vacuum aspiration for induced abortion could be safely and legally performed by nurses and midwives. Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care, 43 (4), 260–264.

105 World Health Organization. (2022). Abortion care guideline.

106 Wellings, K., Scott, R. H., Sheldon, S., McCarthy, O., Palmer, M. J., Shawe, J., Meiksin, R., Lewandowska, M., Cameron, S. T., Reiter, J., & French, R. S.; SACHA Study Team. (2025). Attitudes towards the regulation and provision of abortion among healthcare professionals in Britain: Cross-sectional survey data from the SACHA Study. BMJ Sexual & Reproductive Health, 51(2), 111–121.

107 Lee, E., Sheldon, S., & Macvarish, J. (2018). The 1967 Abortion Act fifty years on: Abortion, medical authority and the law revisited. Social Science & Medicine, 212, 26–32.

108 Wellings, K., French, R. S., Aronsson, A., Baraitser, P., Cameron, S., Free, C., Keogh, L., Lewandowska, M., Lohr, P., Meiksin, R., McCarthy, O., Murphy, C., Norman, W., Palmer, M., Reiter, J., Salaria, N., Scott, R., Shawe, J., Sheldon, S., & Wong, G. (2023). Evidence base to inform health service configuration for abortion provision: the SACHA (Shaping Abortion for Change) multi-component study. London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine.

109 House of Commons Science and Technology Committee. (2007). Scientific developments relating to the Abortion Act 1967: Twelfth report of session 2006–07 (HC 1045). The Stationery Office.

110 As above.

111 Wellings, K., Scott, R. H., Sheldon, S., McCarthy, O., Palmer, M. J., Shawe, J., Meiksin, R., Lewandowska, M., Cameron, S. T., Reiter, J., & French, R. S.; SACHA Study Team. (2025). Attitudes towards the regulation and provision of abortion among healthcare professionals in Britain: Cross-sectional survey data from the SACHA Study. BMJ Sexual & Reproductive Health, 51(2), 111–121.

112 Kishen, M., & Stedman, Y. (2010). The role of Advanced Nurse Practitioners in the availability of abortion services. Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 24(5), 569–578.

113 Barnard, S., Kim, C., Park, M. H., & Ngo, T. D. (2015). Doctors or mid-level providers for abortion. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2015(7), CD011242.

114 World Health Organization. (2022). Family planning and comprehensive abortion care toolkit for the primary health care workforce.

115 Human Rights Law Centre. (2022, December 19). Abortion as healthcare in law: Submission on the reform of South Australia’s abortion laws.

116 Goodhart, C. B. (1968). G.M.C. and Abortion Act, 1967. British Medical Journal, 2 (5600), 298.

117 House of Commons Science and Technology Committee. (2007). Scientific developments relating to the Abortion Act 1967: Twelfth report of session 2006–07 (HC 1045).

118 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2023). Reforming abortion law.

119 Royal College of Nursing (2013) Termination of Pregnancy: An RCN Nursing Framework.PUB 004 386

120 National Centre for Social Research. (2023, September 21). Britain’s attitudes towards moral issues have become much more liberal.

121 Scottish Government. (2023). Evaluation of telemedicine early medical abortion at home in Scotland.

122 As above, conclusions

123 World Health Organization. (2022). Abortion care guideline.

124 World Health Organization. (2022). WHO recommendations on self-care interventions: Self-management of medical abortion – 2022 update (WHO/SRH/22.1).

125 As above

126 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2022). Best practice in abortion care.

127 National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2019). Expulsion at home for early medical abortion (Evidence review G). NICE Guideline NG140.

128 Scottish Government. (2023). Evaluation of telemedicine early medical abortion at home in Scotland.

129 Chavkin, W., Leitman, L., & Polin, K. (2013). Conscientious objection and refusal to provide reproductive healthcare: A white paper examining prevalence, health consequences, and policy responses. Global Doctors for Choice.

130 Council of Europe. (2021). European Convention on Human Rights.

131 World Health Organization. (2022). Abortion care guideline.

132 Greasley, K. (2017). Human equality and the significance of birth. In Arguments about abortion: Personhood, morality, and law (Chapter 8, pp. 181–200). Oxford University Press.

133 Stakeholder submission to the Expert Group, November 2024, (Unpublished)

134United Kingdom. (1990). Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 (c. 37).

135 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2024). Guidance for Advisory Appointment Committees (AAC) and RCOG representatives on AAC Panels: January 2024.

136 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2024). Core Curriculum 2024 (Stages one–three): Definitive document, section 10.5.

137 Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare. (2017). Guidance for those undertaking or recertifying FSRH qualifications whose personal beliefs conflict with the provision of abortion or any method of contraception.

138 Fleming, V., Frith, L., & Maxwell, C. (2024). Understanding the extent of and limitations to conscientious objection to abortion by health care practitioners: A hermeneutic study. PLOS ONE, 19(2), e0297170.

139 Self, B., Maxwell, C., & Fleming, V. (2023). The missing voices in the conscientious objection debate: British service users’ experiences of conscientious objection to abortion. BMC Medical Ethics, 24, Article 65.

140 European Court of Human Rights. (2011). R.R. v. Poland, Application no. 27617/04.

141 Barke, N. (2020, April 6). Grimmark v. Sweden and Steen v. Sweden: No right for healthcare professionals to refuse to participate in abortion services, and framing strategies by anti-abortion actors. Strasbourg Observers.

142 Scotland. (2004). The National Health Service (General Medical Services Contracts) (Scotland) Regulations 2004 (Scottish Statutory Instrument No. 115).

143 Brock, D. W. (2008). Conscientious refusal by physicians and pharmacists: Who is obligated to do what, and why? Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics, 29(3), 187–200.

144 Fink, L. R., Stanhope, K. K., Rochat, R. W., & Bernal, O. A. (2016). “The fetus is my patient, too”: Attitudes toward abortion and referral among physician conscientious objectors in Bogotá, Colombia. International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 42(2), 71–80.

145 Homaifar, N., Freedman, L., & French, V. (2017). “She’s on her own”: A thematic analysis of clinicians’ comments on abortion referral. Contraception, 95(5), 470–476.

146 Public Health Scotland. (2024, May 28). Termination of pregnancy statistics: Year ending December 2023.

147 Scottish Government. (2023). Evaluation of telemedicine early medical abortion at home in Scotland.

148 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2011). The care of women requesting induced abortion: Evidence-based clinical guideline No. 7.

149 World Health Organization. (2022). Abortion care guideline.

150 Baron, C., Cameron, S., & Johnstone, A. (2015). Do women seeking termination of pregnancy need pre-abortion counselling? BMJ Sexual & Reproductive Health, 41(3), 181–182.

151 Cameron, S. T., Glasier, A.(2013). Identifying women in need of further discussion about the decision to have an abortion and eventual outcome: A retrospective review of case notes. European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care, 18(5), 370–373.

152 Barrett, G., Smith, S. C., & Wellings, K. (2004). Conceptualisation, development, and evaluation of a measure of unplanned pregnancy. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 58(5), 426–433.

153 NHS inform. (2025). Abortion. NHS 24.

154 Major, B., Appelbaum, M., Beckman, L., Dutton, M. A., Russo, N. F., & West, C. (2009). Abortion and mental health: Evaluating the evidence. American Psychologist, 64(9), 863–890.

155 McKetta, S., Chakraborty, P., Gimbrone, C., Soled, K. R. S., et al. (2024). Restrictive abortion legislation and adverse mental health during pregnancy and postpartum. Annals of Epidemiology, 92, 47–54.

156 Moulton, J. E., Corona, M. I. V., Vaughan, C., & Bohren, M. A. (2021). Women’s perceptions and experiences of reproductive coercion and abuse: A qualitative evidence synthesis. PLOS ONE, 16(12), e0261551.

157 National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2019). Abortion care (NICE Guideline NG140).

158 As above

159 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2022). Best practice in abortion care.

160 WHO (2022). Abortion Care Guideline.

161 WHO (2022). Abortion Care Guideline.

162 Center for Reproductive Rights. (2018). Abortion, women’s mental health, and biased counselling in Central and Eastern Europe: Fact sheet.

163 National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2019). Abortion care (NICE Guideline NG140): Recommendations – Service organisation.

164 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2022). Best practice in abortion care.

165 As above

166 Center for Reproductive Rights. (2018). Abortion, women’s mental health, and biased counselling in Central and Eastern Europe: Fact sheet.

167 Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. (2013). Concluding observations on the combined seventh and eighth periodic reports of Hungary (CEDAW/C/HUN/CO/7-8), para. 31(c). United Nations.

168 European Court of Human Rights. (2007). Tysiąc v. Poland, No. 5410/03, para. 116.

169 Scott, J. (Chair). (2022). Scottish Mental Health Law Review: Final report. Scottish Government.

170 Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. (2025). Code of practice for the diagnosis and confirmation of death (Updated January 2025).

171 Northern Ireland Judiciary. (n.d.). Application by the NIHRC for judicial review: In the matter of the failure by the Secretary of State and others.

172 Judiciary of Scotland. (2025, July 7). HMA v Stephen Doohan.

173 Legislation.gov.uk. (1967). Abortion Act 1967 (c. 87).

174 General Medical Council (2024) Good medical practice.

175 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2011). The care of women requesting induced abortion (Evidence-based Clinical Guideline No. 7).

176 RCOG (2022) Best practice in abortion care.

177 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2024). Involvement of police following abortion and pregnancy loss.

178 Legislation.gov.uk. (1809). Concealment of Birth (Scotland) Act 1809.

179 ‘Scotland Privy Council. (1690). Act anent murthering of children. Internet Archive.

180 Gordon, G. H. (1967). The criminal law of Scotland. W. Green & Son.

181 Harrower-Gray (2014) Scotland’s hidden harlots and heroines: Women’s role in Scottish society from 1690-1969. Pen & sword books Ltd.

182 Legislation.gov.uk. (1809). Concealment of Birth (Scotland) Act 1809.

183 Legislation.gov.uk. (1968). Medicines Act 1968.

184 Legislation.gov.uk. (2012). The Human Medicines Regulations 2012 (S.I. 2012/1916).

185 As above

186 Scottish Parliament. (2018). Domestic Abuse (Scotland) Act 2018.

187 Scottish Government. (2022). Freedom of Information request: FOI-202200273426.

188 Judiciary of Scotland. (2025, July 7). HMA v Stephen Doohan.

189 Hymas, C. (2024, April 7).. Decriminalising abortion opposed by more than half the public, as MPs table reforms, The Telegraph.

190 YouGov. (2023, June 28). Where does the British public stand on abortion in 2023?

191 Lavrakas, P. J. (Ed.). (2008). Encyclopedia of survey research methods (Vols. 1–0). Sage Publications, Inc.

192 Chabdu, A. (2024, October 29). How are attitudes towards abortion in Britain changing? National Centre for Social Research.

193 British Medical Association. (2025). The removal of criminal sanctions for abortion: Position paper.

194 Royal College of General Practitioners. (2019). RCGP UK-wide position on decriminalisation of abortion.

195 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists & Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare. (2022). Joint statement on decriminalisation of abortion.

196 Royal College of Nursing. (2024, December 3). RCN position on decriminalisation of abortion in England, Wales and Scotland.

197 Royal College of Midwives. (2023). RCM position statement: Abortion.

198 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists & Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare. (2022). Joint statement on decriminalisation of abortion.

199 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2025). Multiagency call for urgent action by Parliament to protect women’s essential reproductive rights.

200 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2023). Reforming abortion law.

201 British Medical Association. (2025). The removal of criminal sanctions for abortion: Position paper.

202 World Health Organization. (2022). Abortion care guideline.

203 As above

204 Engender. (2024). Outdated, harmful and never in the public interest: The urgent need to modernise Scotland's abortion law and prevent prosecutions.

205 Norris, A., Bessett, D., Steinberg, J. R., Kavanaugh, M. L., De Zordo, S., & Becker, D. (2011). Abortion stigma: A reconceptualization of constituents, causes, and consequences. Women's Health Issues, 21(3 Suppl), S49–S54.

206 World Health Organization. (2022). Abortion care guideline.

207 Boyd, S. (2020). Abortion and criminal law: Reframing the legal debate. In S. Sheldon & K. Wellings (Eds.), Decriminalising abortion in the UK: What would it mean? (Chapter 6). Bristol University Press.

208 As above

209 Sheldon, S. (2017). Abortion law reform in Victoria: Lessons for the UK. BMJ Sexual & Reproductive Health, 43(1), 25–28.

210 Public Health Scotland. (2025). Termination of pregnancy statistics: Year ending December 2024.

211 Public Health Scotland. (2021). Termination of pregnancy statistics: Year ending December 2020.

212 Public Health Scotland. (2022). Termination of pregnancy statistics: Year ending December 2021.

213 Public Health Scotland. (2024). Termination of pregnancy statistics: Year ending December 2023.

214 Dr Mary Neal and Dr Johnathan Brown (2025), unpublished stakeholder submission.

215 As above

216 SRHR. (2022). Law & policy recommendation 1: Criminalization (2.2.1). In Abortion care guideline: Chapter 2 – Recommendations relating to regulation of abortion.

217 Engender (2024) Outdated, harmful and never in the public interest: The urgent need to modernise Scotland’s abortion law and prevent prosecutions.

218 UK Government. (2012). The Human Medicines Regulations 2012, Regulation 214. UK Statutory Instruments 2012 No. 1916.

219 UK Government. (2012). The Human Medicines Regulations 2012, Regulation 255. UK Statutory Instruments 2012 No. 1916.

220 UK Government. (2012). The Human Medicines Regulations 2012, Regulation 46. UK Statutory Instruments 2012 No. 1916.

221UK Government. (2012). The Human Medicines Regulations 2012, Regulation 17 (as made). UK Statutory Instruments 2012 No. 1916.

222 General Medical Council. Our sanctions – information for doctors under investigation.

223 Nursing and Midwifery Council. Sanctions we can impose. Nursing and Midwifery Council.

224 UK Parliament. (2017–2019). Abortion Bill (Bill 276).

225 BBC News. (2022, March 14). Reproductive coercion: 'I wasn't allowed to take my pill'.

226 Reardon, D. C., & Longbons, T. (2023). Effects of pressure to abort on women’s emotional responses and mental health. Cureus, 15(12), e45823.

227 McKenzie, M., Humphreys, C., & Tarzia, L. (2024). Mothering in the aftermath of reproductive coercion and abuse. Violence Against Women. Advance online publication.

228 Vilda, D., Wallace, M. E., Daniel, C., Evans, M. G., Stoecker, C., & Theall, K. P. (2021). State Abortion Policies and Maternal Death in the United States, 2015‒2018. American journal of public health, 111(9), 1696–1704.

229 Williams, A. M., Kronk, C. A., Jimenez, R. H., & Watson, A. R. (2022). Associations between state policies, race, ethnicity and rurality, and maternal mortality and morbidity following the United States Supreme Court Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization ruling. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 129(6), e145–e147.

230 Sedgh, G., Bearak, J., Singh, S., Bankole, A., Popinchalk, A., Ganatra, B., Rossier, C., Gerdts, C., Tunçalp, Ö., Johnson Jr, B. R., & Alkema, L. (2016). Abortion incidence between 1990 and 2014: Global, regional, and subregional levels and trends. The Lancet. Advance online publication.

231 Foster, D. G. (2016). Unmet need for abortion and woman-centered contraceptive care. The Lancet, 388(10041), 216–217.

232 Cameron, S., Li, H. W. R., & Gemzell-Danielsson, K. (2023). Is contragestion the future? BMJ Sexual & Reproductive Health, 49(3), 145–147.

233 World Health Organization. (2012). Safe abortion: Technical and policy guidance for health systems (2nd ed.).

234 Chapter 1, section 1.3.1 of the WHO Abortion Care Guideline (2022)

235 Jareborg, N. (2005). Criminalization as last resort. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 2, 521–534.

236 Ashworth, A. (2008). Conceptions of overcriminalization. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 5, 407–422.

237 Husak, D. (2008). Overcriminalisation: The limits of the criminal law. Oxford University Press.

238 Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. (2025). A code of practice for the diagnosis and confirmation of death: 2025 update.

239 Sheldon, S., & Lord, J. (2023, July 13). Care not criminalisation: Reform of British abortion law is long overdue. Journal of Medical Ethics. Advance online publication.

240 de Londras, F., Cleeve, A., Rodriguez, M. I., Farrell, A., Furgalska, M., & Lavelanet, A. (2022). The impact of criminalisation on abortion-related outcomes: A synthesis of legal and health evidence. BMJ Global Health, 7(12), e010409.

241 Medical Act 1983, c. 54.

242 Nursing and Midwifery Order 2001, SI 2002/253.

243 Medical Act 1983

244 Grace, K. T., & Anderson, J. C. (2016). Reproductive Coercion: A Systematic Review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 19(4), 371-390. (Original work published 2018), 371.

245 Miller, E., Decker, M. R., McCauley, H. L., Tancredi, D. J., Levenson, R. R., Waldman, J., Schoenwald, P., & Silverman, J. G. (2010). Pregnancy coercion, intimate partner violence and unintended pregnancy. Contraception, 81(4), 316–322.

246 Pam Lowe, (2023) ’Reproductive Coercion and Abuse: Key Issues for Safeguarding in Abortion, Contraception and Maternity Care Settings’ Aston University, 3.

247 Chamberlain, L., & Levenson, R. (2012). Addressing intimate partner violence, reproductive and sexual coercion: A guide for obstetric, gynecologic and reproductive health care settings (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; San Francisco, CA: Futures Without Violence.

248 Judiciary of Scotland. (2025, July 7). HMA v Stephen Doohan. High Court of Justiciary.

249 Decree of 17 December 2023 about midwives performing abortions, Law of 2 March 2022 reinforcing the right to abortion, Decree of 19 February 2022 allowing wider access to medical abortion outwith hospitals and clinics, Decree of 30 December 2021 allowing, experimentally, midwives to perform abortions, Decree of 15 April 201 allowing surgical abortions by doctors in health centres, Law of 26 January 2016 allowing midwives to perform medical abortions and removing the 7 day reflection period and the need for a second appointment.

250 Federal Ministry of Justice. (n.d.). German Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch – StGB) (Translation by Prof. Dr. Michael Bohlander; revised by Ute Reusch). Gesetze im Internet. (Accessed: 14 August 2025).

251 Information for patients - abortion services (health.wa.gov.au)

252 Guide for notifying of abortion with E-form

253 Decree of 17 December 2023 about midwives performing abortions, Law of 2 March 2022 reinforcing the right to abortion, Decree of 19 February 2022 allowing wider access to medical abortion outwith hospitals and clinics, Decree of 30 December 2021 allowing, experimentally, midwives to perform abortions, Decree of 15 April 201 allowing surgical abortions by doctors in health centres, Law of 26 January 2016 allowing midwives to perform medical abortions and removing the 7 day reflection period and the need for a second appointment.

254 German Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch – StGB) (gesetze-im-internet.de)

255 Decree of 17 December 2023 about midwives performing abortions, Law of 2 March 2022 reinforcing the right to abortion, Decree of 19 February 2022 allowing wider access to medical abortion outwith hospitals and clinics, Decree of 30 December 2021 allowing, experimentally, midwives to perform abortions, Decree of 15 April 201 allowing surgical abortions by doctors in health centres, Law of 26 January 2016 allowing midwives to perform medical abortions and removing the 7 day reflection period and the need for a second appointment.

256 Federal Ministry of Justice. (n.d.). German Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch – StGB) (Translation by Prof. Dr. Michael Bohlander; revised by Ute Reusch). Gesetze im Internet. (Accessed: 14 August 2025).

257 1978 c. 29; section 2(5) was amended by section 66(1) and paragraph 19(1) of schedule 9 of the National Health Service and Community Care Act 1990 (c.19). The functions of the Secretary of State were transferred to the Scottish Ministers by virtue of section 53 of the Scotland Act 1998 (c. 46).

258 Public Health Scotland is established by order by the Public Health Scotland Order, S.S.I. 2019/336.