North Sea Nephrops: proposed Fisheries Management Plan

Environmental considerations

In addition to the requirements of the 2020 Act, FMPs are subject to legal duties and requirements relating to the protection of the natural environment arising from legislation such as the Habitats Regulations, the Marine Strategy Regulations 2010^[14], and the UK Marine Policy Statement^[15], the Environment Act 2021, Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009, and the Marine (Scotland) Act 2010.

Alongside these requirements, FMPs seek to support a range of other existing environmental policies that focus on enhancing the health of our seas for future generations, restoring marine biodiversity, and tackling the causes and impacts of climate change.

To support the development of policies aimed at protecting the natural environment, SNCBs provided conservation advice for the North Sea Nephrops and West Coast of Scotland Nephrops FMPs. This advice encompasses English, Northern Irish and Scottish waters where Nephrops stocks are targeted. The advice draws on information from ongoing monitoring and evidence programmes related to Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and the UK Marine Strategy. These programmes gather data to better inform us about the risks that marine activities, including fishing, pose to the marine environment.

The conservation advice provided practical guidance on the most significant risks associated with the interactions between the fishing gear types used to target Nephrops and the designated features of MPAs, Priority Marine Features (PMFs) ^[16] (Scottish waters only) and UK Marine Strategy descriptors. The advice identified otter trawls and creels, as the primary gear types for consideration.

The SNCBs developed a ‘risk rating’ which is intended to help identify where the greatest impacts of fishing are likely to occur. A three-point scale has been used in the conservation advice: low, moderate and high risk. Activities with a moderate risk indicate that fisheries management authorities may need to take additional action to reduce the impact of fishing or, in some cases, improve the evidence base in order to more accurately assess risk in the future. For activities with a high rating it is generally suggested that action will be needed. The advice noted that more detailed information on gear types, location and fishing effort would improve the ability to assess environmental risks associated with each FMP and could alter some of the risk ratings presented.

The evidence and advice provided by SNCBs underpins the proposed actions in the ‘policies’ section of this FMP, in particular Policy 2: Understand and minimise the benthic impact of Nephrops fisheries. In addition, policies 1 and 3 directly support the delivery of improvements to the UK Marine Strategy descriptors relating to stock health. It is important to note that many of the actions that sit under these policies support work already underway. Additionally, some of the risks identified require further data gathering or analysis before appropriate actions can be designed and therefore some of the actions have strategic elements and relate to data collection that will help to develop the evidence-base needed.

It should also be recognised that the act of fishing in general, by its very nature, impacts on marine species and the marine environment in which fishing boats operate. However, understanding and, where possible, mitigating these risks and impacts, is an important part of effective fisheries management. In particular, the need to balance environmental action with consideration of the socio-economic benefits that fishing brings, is an important component of fisheries management.

MPAs and Priority Marine Features (PMFs) (Scottish waters only)

The conservation advice identified that Nephrops fisheries have the potential to impact the designated features of MPAs and PMFs in three ways:

• Through the bycatch and entanglement of species that are designated features of MPAs and PMFs (in Scottish waters);
• Through removal of prey species on which designated species depend; and
• Through physical impacts to seafloor resulting in habitat impacts.

The advice recognises that measures have already been introduced, or are in the process of being introduced, which seek to mitigate the impact of Nephrops fishing in MPA areas, covering the above three impacts.

For MPAs, risk relating to bycatch of mobile species (e.g. marine mammals and fish species) is deemed to be moderate. Some species - such as basking shark, minke whale, and to a lesser extent, Risso’s dolphin – are potentially at a greater risk of entanglement in creel fisheries. This risk is most relevant to the West Coast of Scotland Nephrops FMP which encompasses the majority of creeling activity, with only a small amount taking place in the North Sea. Flapper skate (Dipturus intermedius) (RJB)^[17] may be at greater risk through bycatch from Nephrops trawls owing to their habitat preferences. Gathering additional evidence on bycatch will help improve the evidence base and support improved management and actions relating to this are set out under the 'policies’ section. Finally, there is a low risk of removal of important prey species that designated species depend on as Nephrops are not considered a key prey species, and bycatch of key prey species is not thought to be at a level of concern.

In Scottish waters, the risk for bycatch involving PMFs is considered moderate. However, further evidence collection to better understand the issue could lower this risk in the future. In addition to the bycatch risks associated with MPAs features, creeling poses an entanglement risk for other large whale species such as fin, sperm whales, and humpback whales (although this species is not listed as a PMF). This issue is mainly a concern for the WoS Nephrops FMP, however it is considered in the 'policies’ section of this FMP, which outlines current and planned actions for evidence gathering and bycatch mitigation signposting to the positive initiatives already being undertaken by the fishing industry.

Similar to MPAs, there is also a low risk of removing PMFs that serve as important prey species for PMF species. However, there is value in continuing to develop and improve measures for minimising bycatch of fish in the Nephrops fisheries to support stock sustainability and broader biodiversity outcomes.

The risk rating for physical impacts to benthic and habitat PMFs is considered moderate, due to the fact that these features will be offered some protection through the MPA management process. This rating is primarily driven by the trawl fisheries, but creeling also contributes to this risk, with the relative impact linked to the intensity of creel fishing in an area.

This topic is further explored in Policy 2 ‘Understand and minimise the benthic impact of Nephrops fisheries’. Some actions to address benthic impacts are already underway such as the introduction of inshore Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) and the implementation of fisheries management measures in existing MPAs and for PMFs (in Scottish waters).

Highly Protected Marine Areas - England

Highly Protected Marine Areas (HPMAs) are areas of the sea (including the shoreline) that allow the protection and full recovery of marine ecosystems. By setting aside some areas of sea with high levels of protection, HPMAs will allow nature to fully recover to a more natural state, allowing the ecosystem to thrive.

HPMAs will protect all species and habitats and associated ecosystem processes within the site boundary, including the seabed and water column. The first three Highly Protected Marine Areas (HPMAs) designations in English waters came into force on 5 July 2023.

The three sites are:

• Allonby Bay
• North East of Farnes Deep
• Dolphin Head

Any actions arising from the FMPs that overlap with HPMAs will comply with the conservation objectives for designated features.

UK Marine Strategy Descriptors

The Marine Strategy Regulations 2010^[18] require management action to be taken to achieve or maintain Good Environmental Status (GES). The UK Marine Strategy Part Three: UK Programme of Measures outlines the actions and initiatives the UK is taking to do this.

The conservation advice for Nephrops focused on the most relevant descriptors in terms of risks posed by commercial and recreational fisheries (D1 biodiversity, D4 foodwebs, D6 seafloor integrity and D10 marine litter). The advice also noted that additional consideration of screened-out descriptors may be required in the future and that the status of many of the current indicators are currently ‘uncertain’ or ‘unassessed’ and as the evidence base develops, the advice pertinent to those descriptors will need to be updated.

The conservation advice noted a number of risks from Nephrops fishing. This included a moderate risk to achieving GES for the biological diversity of marine mammals, particularly cetaceans, and seabirds through bycatch and prey reduction.

There is also a high risk to seafloor integrity due to benthic disturbance caused by mobile demersal gears. The indicator did not include impacts from the Nephrops creel fishery, and while these are likely to be lower risk, these gears may impact seafloor integrity if operating at a high intensity. The advice noted that further work was needed to identify and quantify impacts from individual fisheries. Actions in relation to this issue are contained within the ‘policies’ section.

The advice also noted a moderate risk to marine litter from Nephrops fishing, however, more evidence is needed on abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gear in the fisheries to better understand the issue.

This topic is further explored as part of Policy 2 ‘Understand and minimise the benthic impact of Nephrops fisheries’ and Policy 3 ‘Minimise the impact of Nephrops fishing activities on sensitive marine species by reducing bycatch and entanglement’. Some actions to address these impacts are already underway such as monitoring the spatial footprint of fishing and introducing fisheries management measures to protect marine features. This includes improving the accuracy of fisheries spatial data through the introduction of inshore VMS. Longer term actions involve collaborating across the UK to reduce unwanted bycatch of marine species, through the UK Marine Wildlife Bycatch Mitigation Initiative. This initiative aims to improve understanding of the risk and frequency of sensitive species interactions, and the effectiveness of existing mitigation and avoidance measures.

Climate change

Both adapting to the impacts of climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions to support reaching net-zero, presents several significant challenges for the fisheries sector, highlighting the need for a collective approach to understanding these issues and co‑developing solutions. Significant progress has been made over the last decade in strengthening the evidence base, with greater attention from both policy and industry on climate change impacts, and opportunities for adaptation^[19] and mitigation^[20].

Climate change is expected to affect many commercial sea fish and shellfish species—particularly those inhabiting or relying on inshore waters—through changes in habitat suitability, geographical distribution, and overall productivity.

Climate change impacts on Nephrops stocks and fisheries

Nephrops populations in UK waters are considered eurythermal (temperature tolerant) and are thought to be within the colder end of their thermal range. As such, they are not expected to experience major temperature driven changes under projected warming scenarios, which will occur in warmer end of their thermal ranges. Warming seas have shifted the timing of larval release earlier in the year, but this change has had little effect on larval survival or dispersal to date, indicating physiological and ecological flexibility. However, ocean acidification may have adverse effects, including reduced immune function (Thornborrow et al., 2024^[21]; Hernroth et al., 2012^[22]).

West coast of Scotland Nephrops populations in particular, benefit from larval input from the western Irish Sea, which can help support Scottish stocks during periods of low local recruitment. This cross‑boundary larval exchange may provide a buffer under moderate climate pressures. However, despite their tolerance to temperature change, habitat suitability for Nephrops along the West Coast of Scotland is projected to decline. Reductions in suitable muddy burrow habitats could pose a significant long-term risk to populations, even if the species remains physiologically resilient. Certain fishing practices—such as trawling and dredging—can further damage key seabed habitats.

Overall, while Nephrops exhibit some resilience and adaptability, the longer-term decline in habitat suitability remains a concern for future population stability.

Vessel emissions

In addition to the impacts of climate change on Nephrops fisheries, and the need to adapt to these changes, it is also important to consider climate change mitigation (and net zero targets) in relation to fishing. The fishing sector contributes to carbon emissions through vessel emissions and transport of exports.

For 2023^[23], estimated fuel use emissions from fishing within UK’s territorial emissions (491 kt CO₂e) represented 0.12% of the UK’s total territorial emissions (424 Mt CO₂e), or 0.44% of the UK’s domestic transport emissions (112 Mt CO₂e). Estimated emissions from fishing would have been equivalent to 1.1% of total agricultural emissions in 2023 (46.6 Mt CO₂e).

Passive gears are generally less emission-intensive than mobile gears, however quantification of carbon emissions across the fishing fleet supply chain (for example, preharvest through to postharvest) is required to truly understand the fisheries carbon footprint.

Fishing can also play a positive role in addressing climate change through diet through diet, as fisheries provide high-quality protein with a low carbon footprint. The UK policy authorities have different targets relating to climate change and are developing plans to support the drive towards net zero.

Blue carbon

Fishing practices that impact the seabed (e.g., through the use of bottom contact gear) can disturb the organic carbon stored in some marine habitats (“blue carbon habitats”). The JFS emphasises protecting and restoring these habitats to support climate resilience.

The Scottish Blue Carbon Action Plan sets out how the Scottish Government will integrate emerging evidence on blue carbon into conservation and climate policy, focusing on preventing the loss of organic carbon from existing blue carbon habitats — saltmarsh, seagrass, seabed sediments, and kelp and other seaweeds. Restoration and creation of new habitats is possible but offers limited mitigation potential. These habitats are not yet included in the UK greenhouse gas inventory due to remaining evidence gaps, although their carbon storage role is increasingly recognised. More widely, work at a cross-UK level by the UK Blue Carbon Evidence Partnership (UKBCEP) is progressing to build up the evidence base for blue carbon and to support the potential inclusion of appropriate habitats into the UK greenhouse gas inventory, beginning with saltmarsh. Other habitats such as maerl beds, oyster reefs, and serpulid reefs^[24] support biodiversity and contribute to the ocean carbon cycle by trapping organic carbon within their complex structures but are not considered blue carbon habitats. While blue carbon habitats in the UK represent globally important stores of organic carbon, their value for climate change mitigation should be considered holistically, alongside the full range of ecosystem services these habitats provide^[25].

Seabed sediments face the greatest pressures, particularly from bottom trawling, which resuspends sediment and exposes stored organic carbon, potentially releasing CO₂. Near‑shore sediments may be especially vulnerable, though the scale of carbon loss and long‑term impacts remain uncertain. Research is ongoing to understand how repeated disturbance and biological changes influence sediment carbon cycling.

Next steps include improving the evidence on seabed sediment carbon stores and their interactions with human activities. Many carbon‑rich habitats, such as burrowed mud, already receive protection through MPAs and Priority Marine Feature designations. Future policies and proposed fisheries management measures will build on these protections to reduce pressures and better safeguard blue carbon stores.

Long term considerations

Addressing many of these challenges are beyond the scope of the FMPs. To support delivery of the climate change objective in the 2020 Act, as well as of national strategies such as Scotland’s Fisheries Management Strategy, the fisheries policy authorities will work in partnership with stakeholders to support fisheries in the drive to net zero and consider where and how we need to adapt our approaches to take account of the impacts of climate change.

The delivery of mitigation strategies for climate change is not within scope of this first iteration of these FMPs. The FMPs do, however, contain an objective to explore options for adapting fishery management to challenges presented by the changing climatic conditions. The FMPs will be reviewed and adapted as research into climate change develops and new methods to address challenges from climate change are available.