What Works to Reduce Crime?: A Summary of the Evidence

Footnotes

1. See http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/0038/00385880.pdf

2. Smith, D (2004) Parenting and Delinquency at Ages 12 to 15. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh

3. Brantingham, PL & Faust, L (1976) 'A conceptual model of crime prevention', Crime and Delinquency, 22:284 - 96.

4. See http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/0038/00385880.pdf

5. Hans Eysenck (1998) Dimensions of Personality

6. See also European report on preventing violence and knife crime among young people (WHO 2010) p31

7. Grove, Eckert, Heston, Bouchard, Segal and Lykken, 1990, Heritability of substance abuse and antisocial behavior: A study of monozygotic twins reared apart. Biological Psychiatry, Volume 27, Issue 12, 15 June 1990, Pages 1293-1304. More recent research by Caspi et al found evidence of a 'criminal gene' (Monoamine Oxidise A -MAOA) which could be 'switched on' within maltreated children and cause an increase in aggression and antisocial behaviour in adolescence. However, children who had the gene and were subject to good, caring child rearing practices were far less likely to develop antisocial behaviour.

8. Marcus, D., Fulton, J., Clarke, E. (2010). Lead and Conduct Problems: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology , 39(2), 234-241.

9. http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2013/01/lead-crime-link-gasoline

10. Nevin, R. (2007) Understanding international crime trends: The legacy of preschool lead exposure. Environmental Research 104:315-336.

11. Stretesky, Paul B., & Michael J. Lynch (2004) The relationship between lead and crime. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 45 (2): 214-29.

12. Wright JP, Dietrich KN, Ris MD, Hornung RW, Wessel SD, et al. (2008) Association of Prenatal and Childhood Blood Lead Concentrations with Criminal Arrests in Early Adulthood. PLoS Med 5(5): e101. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050101

13. Gottfredson, M. & Hirschi, T (1990) A General Theory of Crime. Stanford University Press: Stanford, C.A.

14. Gottfredson, D., Wilson, D. and Najaka, S. (2002) 'School-based crime prevention' in Evidence-Based Crime Prevention. Sherman, L., Farrington, D., Welsh, B. and MacKenzie, D. (eds.) London: Routledge, pp 56-164.

15. Smith, D, McVie S, Woodward R, Shute J, Flint J and McAra L (2001). Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions and Crime: Key Findings at Ages 12 and 13. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

16. Piquero, A.R., Farrington, D.P., & Blumstein, A. (2003). "The criminal career paradigm." In M. Tonry (ed.), Crime and justice: A review of research, volume 30. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

17. See, for example, Moffitt, T.E. 1993. "Life-course-persistent" and "adolescence-limited" antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674-701 and Moffitt, T.E. et al (2011) 'A Gradient of Childhood self-control predicts health, wealth and public safety' in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. January 2011.

18. Caspi A, Wright BRE, Moffitt TE, Silva PA (1998) Early failure in the labor market: Childhood and adolescent predictors of unemployment in the transition to adulthood. American Sociological Review 63. pp 424-451.

19. Moffitt, T.E. et al (2011) 'A Gradient of Childhood self-control predicts health, wealth and public safety' in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. January 2011.

20. Patterson, GR, 'Coercive Family Process'. Castalia, 1982

21. MacQueen, S., Curran, J, Hutton, L and Whyte, B. Support and Service for Parents: A Review of the Literature in Engaging and Supporting Parents. Scottish Government:2007.

22. Piquero, A.R., Jennings, W.G. and Farrington, D.P. (2010) Self-control Interventions for Children Under Age 10 for Improving Self-control and Delinquency and Problem Behaviours. Campbell Systematic Reviews 2010:2

23. Farrington, D.P., & Welsh, B.C. (2003). Family-based prevention of offending: A meta-analysis. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 36, 127-151

24. Bernazzani, O., & Tremblay, R.E. (2006). "Early parent training." In B.C. Welsh & D.P. Farrington (eds.), Preventing crime: What works for children, offenders, victims, and places. Dordrecht. Springer

25. Alex R. Piquero, David P. Farrington, Brandon C. Welsh, Richard Tremblay, Wesley G. Jennings. Effects of Early Family/Parent Training Programs on Antisocial Behavior & Delinquency' Campbell Systematic Reviews 2008:113.

26. Scott, S. et al, 2002. 'Multicentre controlled trial of parenting groups for child antisocial behaviour in clinical practice'. British Medical Journal, 323. pp194-6.

27. MacQueen, S., Curran, J, Hutton, L and Whyte, B. (2007) Support and Service for Parents: A Review of the Literature in Engaging and Supporting Parents. Edinburgh: Scottish Government.

28. See Tremblay, R.E. (2000). The development of aggressive behavior during childhood: What have we learned in the past century? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 129-141.

29. Fraser, A. et al. (2010) Youth Violence in Scotland: Literature Review. Edinburgh: Scottish Government.

30. Sutherland, A., Merrington, S., Jones, S., Baker, K. and Roberts, C. (2005) Role of Risk and Protective Factors. London: Youth Justice Board for England and Wales.

31. Holden, T. and Lloyd, R. (2004). The role of education in enhancing life chances and preventing offending. Home Office Development and Practice Report 19, Home Office, London.

32. Gottfredson, D., Wilson, D. and Najaka, S. (2002) 'School-based crime prevention' in Evidence-Based Crime Prevention. Sherman, L., Farrington, D., Welsh, B. and MacKenzie, D. (eds.) London: Routledge, pp 56-164.

33. Welsh, B. And Hoshi, A. (2006) 'Communities and Crime Prevention' in: Shermann, L. et al (Eds) Evidence Based Crime Prevention. Routledge.

34. One possible explanation for this was that the young people with no prior criminality had formed friendships with those who had through their involvement in the mentoring programme.

35. Aleixo, P.A. & Norris, C.E. (2000) Personality and moral reasoning in young offenders, Personality and Individual Differences, 28(3):609-623.

36. Losel, F. and Beelmann, A. (2007). 'Child Social Skills Training' in Welsh, B. and Farrington, D. (Eds) Preventing Crime: What Works for Children, Offenders, Victims and Places, Springer: New York.

37. Calculated using Cohen's d coefficient.

38. Raynor, P. (2004) 'Rehabilitative and reintegrative approaches' in: A. E. Bottoms, S. Rex and G. Robinson (Eds) Alternatives to Prison: Options for an Insecure Society, Cullompton:Willan

39. Gottfredson, D., Wilson, D. and Najaka, S. (2002) 'School-based crime prevention' in Evidence-Based Crime Prevention. Sherman, L., Farrington, D., Welsh, B. and MacKenzie, D. (eds.) London: Routledge, pp 56-164.

40. Gault, I (2003) 'Study on Youth Offending in Glasgow'. Stirling: SCRA.

41. Batchelor, S (2005) 'Prove me the Bam!' Victimisation and agency in the Lives of young women who commit violent offences. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Glasgow.

42. McAra, L. and McVie, S. (2010) 'Youth Crime and Justice: Key Messages from the Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions and Crime'. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 10:179.

43. Mastern, A.S., Best, K., and Garmezy, N., (1990) Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity, Development and Psychopathology, 2(4):425-444.

44. MacQueen, S., Curran, J, Hutton, L and Whyte, B. (2007) Support and Service for Parents: A Review of the Literature in Engaging and Supporting Parents. Edinburgh: Scottish Government.

45. Fraser, A. et al. (2010) Youth Violence in Scotland: Literature Review. Edinburgh: Scottish Government.

46. Sampson, R.J. and Laub, J.H. (2004) 'A General Age-Graded Theory of Crime: Lessons Learned and the Future of Life-Course Criminology' in: D. Farrington (ed.) Advances in Criminological Theory (Vol. 14 ): Integrated Developmental and Life Course Theories of Offending. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishing.

47. Scottish Government (2013) Statistical Bulletin Crime and Justice Series: Recorded Crime in Scotland, 2012-13.
http://www.scotland.gov.ukca4551e1-8e7b-4f4a-9510-ba3f1cd70e17

48. ISD Scotland (2013), Scottish Drug Misuse Database: Overview of individuals assessed in 2011/12.
http://www.isdscotland.org/Health-Topics/Drugs-and-Alcohol-Misuse/Publications/index.asp?ID=663

49. Scottish Prison Service (2013) Prisoner Survey 2013.
http://www.sps.gov.uk/Publications/Publication-5345.aspx

50. Scottish Government (2013) Statistical Bulletin Crime and Justice Series: Homicide in Scotland, 2012-13.
http://www.scotland.gov.uk2db76003-3fdd-4778-af28-5c0d7b70d342

51. Flood-Page, C, Campbell, S, Harrington, V and Miller, J. (2000). Youth Crime: Findings from the 1998/99 Youth Lifestyle Survey. Home Office Research Study 209. London: Home Office.

52. Dillon, L., Chivite-Matthews, N., Grewal, I., Brown, R., Webster, S., Weddell, E., Brown, G. and Smith, N.(2007) Risk, protective factors and resilience to drug use: identifying resilient young people and learning from their experiences. Home Office Online Report 04/07. London: Home Office.
http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/rdsolr0407.pdf

53. Gottredson, M. & Hirschi, T (1990) A General Theory of Crime. Stanford, C.A: Stanford University Press.

54. Page 93

55. Best, D. et al. (2010) Research for Recovery: A Review of the Drugs Evidence Base. Edinburgh: Scottish Government. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2010/08/18112230/0

56. World Health Organisation Factsheet (2008) http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/en/

57. Scottish Prison Service (2013) Prisoner Survey 2013 http://www.sps.gov.uk/Publications/Publication-5345.aspx

58. Scottish Prison Service (2011) Prisoner Survey 2013- Young Offenders
http://www.sps.gov.uk/Publications/Publication-5353.aspx

59. Harmful Drinking Two: Alcohol and Assaults, (2006) NHS Quality Improvement Scotland.

60. Unpublished data supplied by Strathclyde Police.

61. Scottish Government (2013) Homicide in Scotland 2012/13. https://www.gov.scot/publications/homicide-scotland-2012-13/

62. Scottish Government (2014) Scottish Crime and Justice Survey 2012/13: Main findings http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/0044/00447271.pdf

63. McKinlay, W., Forsyth, AJM, and Khan, F (2009) Alcohol and Violence among Young Male Offenders in Scotland. Edinburgh: Scottish Prison Service.

64. Bannister, J, Pickering, J, Batchelor, S, Burman, M, Kintrea, K and McVie, S. (2010) Troublesome Youth Groups ,gangs and Knife Carrying in Scotland, Scottish Government.

65. NHS Health Scotland - Outcomes Framework: Alcohol http://www.healthscotland.com/OFHI/alcohol/logicmodels/lm_01.html

66. Scottish Government (2009) Changing Scotland's Relationship with Alcohol: A framework for action http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2009/03/04144703/0

67. NHS Health Scotland - Monitoring and Evaluating Scotland's Alcohol Strategy: MESAS http://www.healthscotland.com/scotlands-health/evaluation/planning/mesas.aspx

68. For up-dates see: http://www.healthscotland.com/topics/health/alcohol/offenders.aspx

69. From 'Labor markets and crime risk factors' Shawn D Bushway and Peter Reuter in 'Evidence-Based crime Prevention' edited by Lawrence W Sherman et al. Routledge, 2006.

70. For more detail on this analysis, see: Crime and Macroeconomic Performance in Scotland. Scottish Government. Nov 2010. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Statistics/Browse/Crime-Justice/CrimEco

71. See for example Sampson, RJ and Laub JH (1993) 'Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points through Life' Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press and Gottfredson, Michael and Hirschi , Travis (1990) 'A General Theory of Crime' Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

72. Farrington, D.P. , Gallagher, B., Morley, L., St. Ledger, R.J. and West, D.J. (1986) 'Unemployment, school leaving and crime' British Journal of Criminology, 26:335-56.

73. Sampson, R.J. and Laub, J.H. (1993) Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points through Life. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.

74. Bushway, S.D. (2003). "Re-entry and Prison Work Programs". Prepared for the Urban Institute Reentry Roundtable on Employment Dimensions of Re-entry, May 19-20, 2003. http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/410853_bushway.pdf .

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76. Visher, CA, Winterfield, L & Coggeshall, MB (2006) Systematic Review of Non-custodial Employment Programs: impact on recidivism rates of ex-offenders. Campbell Collaboration.

77. Bushway, S., & Reuter, P. (2002). Labor markets and crime risk factors. In L. Sherman, D. Farrington, B. Welsh, & D. MacKenzie (Eds.), Evidence-based crime prevention. New York, NY: Routledge Press.

78. It should be noted that, because of the demands of the programme, Job Corps participants were less likely to be working during their participation than non-participants. As a result it took the participants some time to catch-up to non-participants who may have been working during the entire comparison period.

79. Fraser, A. et al. (2010) Youth Violence in Scotland: Literature Review. Edinburgh: Scottish Government.

80. Gottfredson, D., Wilson, D. and Najaka, S. (2002) 'School-based crime prevention' in L. Sherman, D. Farrington, B. Welsh and D. MacKenzie (eds.) Evidence-Based Crime Prevention. London: Routledge, pp 56-164

81. Shucksmith, J., Philip, K., Spratt, J. and Watson, C. (2005) Investigating the links between mental health and behaviour in schools. Edinburgh: Scottish Executive.

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103. Note that Sampson and Raudenbush argue that strong kinship ties are not a necessary prerequisite for cohesion within a community. Networks created by local and voluntary organisations are also able to foster collective efficacy. Indeed, they argue that strong kinship ties might actually interfere with public trust and the expectation of collective responsibility.

104. Sampson, R.J. (2004) 'Networks and neighbourhoods: the implications of connectivity for thinking about crime in the modern city' in McCarthy, H., Miller, P. and Skidmore, P. (Eds) Who governs in an interconnected world? Demos: Network Logic
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130. The relevant publications are: Smith, D.J. (2005) Crime and Punishment in Scotland, 1981-1999, in M. Tonry and D. Farrington (eds) Crime and Justice: A Review of Research vol. 33: 83-122, University of Chicago Press and: Cross-National Studies in Crime and Justice, Farrington, D.P, Langan, P. A. & Tonry, M. (2004) Bureau of Justice Statistics in Washington.

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135. Trasler, G. (1986) "Situational Crime Control and Rational Choice: a critique". In Situational Crime Prevention: From Theory into Practice. K. Heal and G. Laycock (eds.) London: HMSO.

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