Wild seaweed harvesting: strategic environmental assessment - environmental report

Investigates the sustainability and potential environmental impacts of wild seaweed and seagrass harvesting, maerl extraction and removal of beach-cast seaweed.


18. Appendix E: Evidence Base

Table E1: Evidence used to inform risk matrix (Table 12 in the main report)

Biotope

Ecological Interactions

Food Web Dynamics

Production

Coastal Protection

Carbon Cycling

General

ABPmer, 2013. Tools for Appropriate Assessment of Fishing and Aquaculture Activities in Marine and Coastal Natura 2000 Sites. Reports II, III and V. R. 2070. Report for Marine Institute.

Foster, M.S. and Barilotti, D.C., 1990. An approach to determining the ecological effects of seaweed harvesting: a summary. In Thirteenth International Seaweed Symposium (pp. 15-16). Springer Netherlands.

Lowe, R.J., Koseff, J.R., Monismith, S.G. 2005. Oscillatory flow through submerged canopies: 1. Velocity structure. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans 110: 1- 17.

Nellemann et al., 2009. Blue Carbon. A Rapid Response Assessment, United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal.

Airoldi, L., and Beck, M. W. 2007. Loss, status and trends for coastal marine habitats of Europe. Oceanography and Marine Biology: an Annual Review, 45: 345-405.

Jones, L.A., Hiscock, K. and Connor, D.W., (2000). Marine habitat reviews. A summary of ecological requirements and sensitivity characteristics for the conservation and management of marine SACs. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough.

UK Climate Projections, 2009. UKCP09 scientific reports.

Available at: http://ukclimateprojections.metoffice.gov.uk/ [accessed 09/02/2016]

Boney, A.D., 1965. Aspects of the biology of the seaweeds of economic imprtance. Advances in Marine Biology, 3, 105^253.

Wells, E., Wilkinson, M., Wood, P., Scanlan, C., and Best, M. 2007. Water Framework Directive development of classification tools for ecological assessment: Macroalgae Species Richness. Water Framework Directive - United Kingdom Technical Advisory Group ( WFD- UKTAG) [Online]

Available at: http://www.wfduk.org/sites/default/files/Media/Characterisation%20of%20the%20water%20environment/Biological%20Method%20Statements/Intertidal%20Rocky%20Shore%20Macroalgae%20Species%20Richness%20Technical%20Report.pdf [accessed 12/02/16]

Centre for Conservation Ecology and Environmental Science ( CCEES) and ABPmer, 2010. Description of the ecosystem services provided by broad-scale habitats and features of conservation importance that are likely to be protected by Marine Protected Areas in the Marine Conservation Zone Project area. Final Report.

Connor, D.W., Allen, J.H., Golding, N., Howell, K.L., Lieberknecht, L.M., Northen, K.O. and Reker, J.B. 2004. The Marine Habitat Classification for Britain and Ireland, Version 04.05 JNCC.

Foster, M.S. and Barilotti, D.C., 1990. An approach to determining the ecological effects of seaweed harvesting: a summary. In Thirteenth International Seaweed Symposium (pp. 15-16). Springer Netherlands.

Jones, L.A., Hiscock, K. and Connor, D.W., (2000). Marine habitat reviews. A summary of ecological requirements and sensitivity characteristics for the conservation and management of marine SACs. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough.

Lavery, P., Bootle, S. & Vanderklift, M. 1999. Ecological effects of macroalgal harvesting on beaches in the Peel-Harvey Estuary, Western Australia. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 49: 295-309.

Lieberknecht, L.M., Vincent, M.A., and Connor, D.W. 2004. The Irish Sea pilot: Report on the identification of nationally important marine features in the Irish Sea. JNCC Report 347.

Norton, T.A., and Powell H.T., 1979. Seaweeds and rocky shores of the Outer Hebrides. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 77B, 141-153.

PlantLink England and PlantLink Cymru undated. Enjoying foraging sustainably. Responsible collection principles.

Unsworth, R.K.F and Cullen-Unsworth, L.C. 2015. Pen Llŷn a'r Sarnau Special Area of Conservation ( SAC) Porthdinllaen Seagrass Project: A review of current knowledge

Wilkinson, M. and Wood, P., 2003. Type-specific reference conditions for macroalgae and angiosperms in Scottish transitional and coastal waters. Final report - 2003. SEPA project reference 230/4136 157pp.

Wracks

Environment and Resource Technology Ltd. (ERT) Undated. Littoral seaweed resource assessment and management in the Western Isles. Condensed from the report produced by Environment and Resource Technology Ltd for the Minch Project. [Online]

Available at: http://www.cne-siar.gov.uk/minch/seaweed/seaweed.htm#TopOfPage [Accessed 24/5/16]

Boaden, P.J. and Dring, M.J. 1980. A quantitative evaluation of the effects of Ascophyllum harvesting on the littoral ecosystem. Helgoländer Meeresuntersuchungen 33: 700-710.

Holt, T.J., Hartnoll, R.G. and Hawkins, S.J. 1997. The sensitivity and vulnerability to man-induced change of selected communities: intertidal brown algal shrubs, Zostera beds and Sabellaria spinulosa reefs. English Nature, Peterborough.

Jackson. A., 2008. Fucus serratus Toothed wrack. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.

Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1326 [accessed on 23/02/2016]

Fernández, Á., Arenas, F., Trilla, A., Rodríguez, S., Rueda, L. & Martínez, B., 2015. Additive effects of emersion stressors on the ecophysiological performance of two intertidal seaweeds. Marine Ecology Progress Series,536: 135-147.

Jenkins, S.R., Norton, T.A. and Hawkins, S.J. 2004. Long term effects of Ascophyllum nodosum canopy removal on mid shore community structure. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 84: 327-329.

Guiry, M.,D., 1997. Went Memorial Lecture 1996. Research and development of a sustainable Irish seaweed industry. Occasional Papers in Irish Science and Technology Royal Dublin Society No 14:1-11.

Kelly, L., Collier, L., Costello, M. J., Diver, M., McGarvey, S., Kraan, S., Morrissey, J. & Guiry, M. D. 2001. Impact Assessment of Hand and Mechanical Harvesting of Ascophyllum nodosum on Regeneration and Biodiversity. Marine Resource Series, Marine Institute

Hill, J.M. and White, N. 2008. Ascophyllum nodosum. Knotted wrack. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. [cited 11/02/2016].

Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1336

McLaughlin, E., Kelly, J., Birkett, D., Maggs, C. and Dring, M. 2006. Assessment of the Effects of Commercial Seaweed Harvesting on Intertidal and Subtidal Ecology in Northern Ireland. Environment and Heritage Service Research and Development Series. No. 06/26.

Jackson. A., 2008. Fucus serratus Toothed wrack. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.

Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1326 [accessed on 23/02/2016]

Kelly, L., Collier, L., Costello, M. J., Diver, M., McGarvey, S., Kraan, S., Morrissey, J. & Guiry, M. D. 2001. Impact Assessment of Hand and Mechanical Harvesting of Ascophyllum nodosum on Regeneration and Biodiversity. Marine Resource Series, Marine Institute

Knight, M. and Parke, M., 1950. A biological study of Fucus vesiculosus L. and Fucus serratus L. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 29, 439-514.

Mclachlan, J. and Bidwell, R. G. 1978. Photosynthesis of eggs, sperm, zygotes and embryos of Fucus serratus. Can. J. Bot., 56: 371-373.

McLaughlin, E., Kelly, J., Birkett, D., Maggs, C. and Dring, M. 2006. Assessment of the Effects of Commercial Seaweed Harvesting on Intertidal and Subtidal Ecology in Northern Ireland. Environment and Heritage Service Research and Development Series. No. 06/26.

Tyler, P., 1994. Ascophyllum harvesting in the Outer Hebrides. Unpublished MSc Thesis, Heriot-Watt University.

White, N. 2008a. Pelvetia canaliculata Channelled wrack. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. . [cited 11/02/16]

Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1342

White, N. 2008b. Fucus spiralis Spiral wrack. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. [cited 11/02/16]

Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1337

White, N. 2008c. Fucus vesiculosus Bladder wrack. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. [cited 11/02/16]

Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1330

Kelps

Amsler, C. D. and Neushul, M. 1991. Photosynthetic physiology and chemical composition of spores of the Kelps Macrocystis pyrifera, Nereocystis luetkeana, Laminaria farlowii and Pterogophora californica. J. Phycol. 27: 26-34.

Birkett, D.A., Maggs, C.A., Dring, M.J., Boaden, P.J.S. and Seed, R. 1998. Infralittoral Reef Biotopes with Kelp Species (volume VII). An overview of dynamic and sensitivity characteristics for conservation management of marine SACs. Scottish Association of Marine Science ( UK Marine SACs Project). 174p.

Bernstein, B.B., Williams B.E. & Mann, K.H. 1981. The role of behavioural responses to predators in modifying sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) destructive grazing and seasonal foraging patterns. Marine Biology, 63: 39-49.

Dayton P. K. 1985. Ecology of kelp communities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 16: 215-245.

Angus, S. 2012. Ecosystem services provided by tangle Laminaria hyperborea on the west coast of the Uists, Outer Hebrides. CoastAdapt. Inverness: Scottish Natural Heritage.

Bellamy, D. J., John, D. M. and Whittick, A. 1968. The "kelp forest ecosystem" as a "phytometer" in the study of pollution of the inshore environment. Underwater Association Report 79-82.

Bekkby, T. and Moy, F.E. 2011. Developing spatial models of sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima) potential distribution under natural conditions and areas of its disappearance in Skagerrak. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 95: 477-483.

Blight, A. J. & Thompson, R. C. 2008. Epibiont species richness varies between holdfasts of a northern and a southerly distributed kelp species. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 88: 469-475.

Christie, H., S. Fredriksen, and E. Rinde. 1998. Regrowth of kelp and colonization of epiphyte and fauna community after kelp trawling at the coast of Norway. Hydrobiologia 375-376:49-58.

Duggins, D.O., Simenstad, C.A. and Estes, J.A. 1989. Magnification of secondary production by kelp detritus in coastal marine ecosystems. Science, 245, 170-173.

Angus, S. and Rennie, A., 2014. An Ataireachd Aird: The storm of January 2005 in the Uists, Scotland. Ocean & Coastal Management, 94, pp.22-29.

Burrows, M.T., Kamenos, N.A., Hughes, D.J., Stahl, H., Howe, J.A. and Tett, P., 2014. Assessment of carbon budgets and potential blue carbon stores in Scotland's coastal and marine environment. Review, 17, 101-161.

CDFG E.I.R. 2001. Calif.Dept.of Fish and Game.Final Environmental Document -Giant and Bull Kelp Commercial and Sport Fishing Regulations -Section 30 and 165,Title 14,California Code of Regulations (Eds. Larson and Mc Peak).

Bodkin, J. L. 1988. Effects of kelp forest removal on associated fish assemblages in central California. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 117:227- 238.

Dugan, J.E., Hubbard, D.M., McCrary, M.D., & Pierson, M.O. 2003. The response of macrofauna communities and shorebirds to macrophyte wrack subsidies on exposed sandy beaches of southern California. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 58:25-40

Johnston, C.S., Jones, R.G., and Hunt, R.D. 1977. A seasonal carbon budget for Laminarian population in a Scottish sea-loch. Helgolander wiss Meeresrunters. 30, 527 -545

Bellamy, D. J., John, D. M. and Whittick, A. 1968. The "kelp forest ecosystem" as a "phytometer" in the study of pollution of the inshore environment. Underwater Association Report 79-82.

Connell, S. D. and B. D. Russell. 2010. The direct effects of increasing CO 2 and temperature on non-calcifying organisms: increasing the potential for phase shifts in kelp forests. Proc. Biol. Sci. 277:1409-1415.

Chapman, A. R. O. 1984. Reproduction, recruitment and mortality in two species of Laminaria in South West of Nova Scotia. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology & Ecology, 78: 99-109.

Bodvin, T., Steen, H. and Moy, F., 2014b. Effekter av tarehøsting på fisk og skalldyr i Vikna, Nord-Trøndelag 2013.

Jones, N.S. and Kain, J.M., 1967. Subtidal algal recolonisation following removal of Echinus.Helgolander Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen, 15, 460-466.

Jones, N.S. and Kain, J.M., 1967. Subtidal algal recolonisation following removal of Echinus.Helgolander Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen, 15, 460-466.

Bouma, T.J., De Vries, M.B., Low, E., Peralta, G., Tánczos, I.C., van de Koppel, J. and Herman, P.M.J., 2005. Trade-offs related to ecosystem engineering: a case study on stiffness of emerging macrophytes. Ecology, 86(8), pp.2187-2199.

Duggins, D.O., Simenstad, C.A. and Estes, J.A. 1989. Magnification of secondary production by kelp detritus in coastal marine ecosystems. Science, 245, 170-173.

Christie, H., S. Fredriksen, and E. Rinde. 1998. Regrowth of kelp and colonization of epiphyte and fauna community after kelp trawling at the coast of Norway. Hydrobiologia 375-376:49-58.

Bodvin, T., Steen, H., Hansen, H.Ø., Sannæs, H., Bosgraaf, S. and Moy, F., 2014a. Effekter av tarehøsting på fisk og skalldyr, Flatanger 2014.

Mann, K. H. 1977. Destruction of kelp-beds by sea urchins: a cyclical phenomenon or irreversible degradation? Helgoland wiss Meeresunters 30:455-467.

Kirkman, H., and Kendrick, G.A., 1997. Ecological significant and commercial harvesting of drifting and beach-cast macro-algae and seagrasses in Australia: a review. Journal of Applied Phycology. 9: 311 - 326

Dugan, J.E., Hubbard, D.M., 2010. Loss of coastal strand habitat in southern California: the role of beach grooming. Estuaries and Coasts 33 (1), 67-77.

Hill, R., Bellgrove, A., Macreadie, P.I., Petrou, K., Beardall, J., Steven, A. and Ralph, P.J., 2015. Can macroalgae contribute to blue carbon? An Australian perspective. Limnology and Oceanography, 60(5), pp.1689-1706.

Dayton P. K. 1985. Ecology of kelp communities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 16: 215-245.

Burrows, M.T., Smales, D., O'Connor, N., Van Rein, H and Moore, P. 2014. Marine Strategy Framework Directive Indicators for UK Kelp Habitats Part 1: Developing proposals for potential indicators. JNCC Report No. 525. SAMS/ MBA/ QUB/ UAber for JNCC, JNCC Peterborough.

Norderhaug, K. M., Fredriksen, S. & Nygaard, K. 2003. Trophic importance of Laminaria hyperborea to kelp forest consumers and the importance of bacterial degradation to food quality. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 255:135-144

Krumhansl, K.A. and Scheibling, R.E., 2012. Production and fate of kelp detritus. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 467, pp.281-302.

Eckman, J. E., Duggins, D. O., and Sewell, A. T. 1989. Ecology of under storey kelp environments. I. Effects of kelps on flow and particle transport near the bottom. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 129:173-187.

Koch, M., G. Bowes, C. Ross, and X.-H. Zhang. 2013. Climate change and ocean acidification effects on seagrasses and marine macroalgae. Glob. Change Biol. 19:103-132.

Edwards, A. 1980. Ecological studies of the kelp, Laminaria hyperborea, and its associated fauna in South-West Ireland. Ophelia, 19: 47-60.

Christie, H., Jorgensen, N. M., Norderhaug, K. M. & Waage-Nielsen, E. 2003. Species distribution and habitat exploitation of fauna associated with kelp ( Laminaria hyperborea) along the Norwegian coast. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 83: 687-699.

Norderhaug, K.M. and Christie, H.C., 2009. Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic. Marine Biology Research, 5(6), pp.515-528.

Mann, K. H. 1972. Ecological energetics of the seaweed zone in a marine bay on the Atlantic coast of Canada: I. Zonation and biomass of seaweeds. Mar. Biol. 12:1-10.

Gaylord, B., Rosman, J.H., Reed, D.C., Koseff, J.R., Fram, J., MacIntyre, S., Arkema, K., McDonald, C., Brzezinski, M.A., Largier, J.L. and Monismith, S.G., 2007. Spatial patterns of flow and their modification within and around a giant kelp forest. Limnology and Oceanography, 52(5), pp.1838-1852.

Krumhansl, K.A. and Scheibling, R.E., 2012. Production and fate of kelp detritus. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 467, pp.281-302.

Frederiksen, S., Sjoetun, K., Lein, T. E. & Rueness, J. 1995. Spore dispersal in Laminaria hyperborea (Phaeophyceae). Sarsia, 80:47-54.

Dugan, J.E., Hubbard, D.M., McCrary, M.D., & Pierson, M.O. 2003. The response of macrofauna communities and shorebirds to macrophyte wrack subsidies on exposed sandy beaches of southern California. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 58:25-40

Orr, K.K. 2013. Predicting the ecosystem effects of harvesting beach-cast kelp for biofuel. PhD thesis. University of Aberdeen.

Mann, K. H. 1982. Ecology of coastal waters: a systems approach: University of California Pr.

Løvås, S.M. and Tørum, A., 2001. Effect of the kelp Laminaria hyperborea upon sand dune erosion and water particle velocities. Coastal Engineering, 44(1), pp.37-63.

Laffoley, D. d. A. and Grimsditch, G. 2009. The management of natural coastal carbon sinks.Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.

Gunnarson, K., 1991. Populations de Laminaria hyperborea et Laminaria digitata (Pheophycees) dans la Baie de Breidifjrdur, Islande. Rit Fiskideildar, 12: 1-148.

Edwards, A. 1980. Ecological studies of the kelp, Laminaria hyperborea, and its associated fauna in South-West Ireland. Ophelia, 19: 47-60.

Sjøtun, K., Christie, H. and Helge Fosså, J., 2006. The combined effect of canopy shading and sea urchin grazing on recruitment in kelp forest ( Laminaria hyperborea). Marine Biology Research, 2(01), pp.24-32.

Nybakken, J.W. 2001. Marine Biology: An Ecological Approach. Fifth Edition. Benjamin Cummings. 516pp

Mann, K. H. 1982. Ecology of coastal waters: a systems approach: University of California Pr.

Mann, K. H. 1982. Ecology of coastal waters: a systems approach: University of California Pr.

Hawkins, S. J. & Harkin, E. 1985: Primary canopy removal experiments in algal dominated communities low on the shore and in the shallows subtidal of the Isle of Man. Botanica Marina, XXVIII: 223-230.

Gilburn, A.S. 2012. Mechanical grooming and beach award status are associated with low strandline biodiversity in Scotland. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 107:81-88

Stamp, T.E. and Hiscock, K. 2015. Grazed Laminaria hyperborea forest with coralline crusts on upper infralittoral rock. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.

Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitat/detail/333 [accessed 18.02.16]

Orr, K.K. 2013. Predicting the ecosystem effects of harvesting beach-cast kelp for biofuel. PhD thesis. University of Aberdeen.

Mollison, D., 1983. Wave energy losses in intermediate depths. Applied Ocean Research 5(4): 234-237

Norderhaug, K.M. and Christie, H.C., 2009. Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic. Marine Biology Research, 5(6), pp.515-528.

Hill, J.M. 2008. Laminaria digitata Oarweed. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. [cited 11/02/16]

Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1386

Hawkins, S. J. & Harkin, E. 1985: Primary canopy removal experiments in algal dominated communities low on the shore and in the shallows subtidal of the Isle of Man. Botanica Marina, XXVIII: 223-230.

Vanderklift, M. A. and Wernberg, T. 2008. Detached kelps from distant sources are a food subsidy for sea urchins. Oecologia, 157: 327-335.

Smale, D.A., Burrows, M.T., Moore, P., O'Connor, N. & Hawkins, S.J., 2013. Threats and knowledge gaps for ecosystem services provided by kelp forests: a northeast Atlantic perspective. Ecology and evolution, 3 (11), 4016-4038.

Mork, M. 1996. The effect of kelp in wave damping. Sarsia 80: 323-327.

Smale, D.A., Burrows, M.T., Evans, A.J., King, N., Sayer, M.D.J., Yunnie, L.E. and Moore, P.J., 2016. Linking environmental variables with regional-scale variability in ecological structure and standing stock of carbon within UK kelp forests. Marine Ecology Progress Series 542: 79-95

Hoffmann, A.J. and Camus, P. 1989. Sinking rates and viability of spores from benthic algae in central Chile. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 126 (3): 281 - 291.

Juanes, F. 2007. Role of habitat in mediating mortality during the postsettlement transition phase of temperate marine fishes. Journal of Fish Biology, 70: 661-677.

Warner, G.F., 1984. Diving and Marine Biology. The Ecology of the Sublittoral. Cambridge Studies in Modern Biology, no. 3, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Stamp, T.E. and Hiscock, K. 2015. Grazed Laminaria hyperborea forest with coralline crusts on upper infralittoral rock. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.

Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitat/detail/333 [accessed 18.02.16]

Smale, D.A., Burrows, M.T., Moore, P., O'Connor, N. & Hawkins, S.J., 2013. Threats and knowledge gaps for ecosystem services provided by kelp forests: a northeast Atlantic perspective. Ecology and evolution, 3 (11), 4016-4038.

Vasquez, J. 2008. Production, use and fate of Chilean brown seaweeds: re-sources for a sustainable fishery. Journal of Applied Phycology. 20:457-467.

Kain, J. M. 1975. The biology of Laminaria hyperborea. VII. Reproduction of the sporophyte. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. UK, 55:567-582.

Orr, K.K. 2013. Predicting the ecosystem effects of harvesting beach-cast kelp for biofuel. PhD thesis. University of Aberdeen.

Vanderklift, M. A. and Wernberg, T. 2008. Detached kelps from distant sources are a food subsidy for sea urchins. Oecologia, 157: 327-335.

Vasquez, J. 2008. Production, use and fate of Chilean brown seaweeds: re-sources for a sustainable fishery. Journal of Applied Phycology. 20:457-467.

Walker, F. T. and Richardson, W. D. 1955. An ecological investigation of Laminaria cloustoni edm. (L.hyperborea Fosl.) around Scotland. Journal of Ecology, 43, 26-38.

Kain, J. M. 1979. A view of the genus Laminaria. Oceanography and Marine Biology an Annual Review, 17, 101-161.

Seitz, R. D., Wennhage, H., Bergstro¨m, U., Lipcius, R. N., and Ysebaert, T. 2013. Ecological value of coastal habitats for commercially and ecologically important species. ICES Journal of Marine Science. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fst152.

Vetter, E. W. and Dayton, P. K. 1998. Macrofaunal communities within and adjacent to a detritus-rich submarine canyon system. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 45: 25-54.

Walker, F. T. and Richardson, W. D. 1955. An ecological investigation of Laminaria cloustoni edm. (L.hyperborea Fosl.) around Scotland. Journal of Ecology, 43, 26-38.

Kain, J. M., 1964. Aspects of the biology of Laminaria hyperborea (L). Survival and growth of gametophytes. J. mar. biol. Ass. UK, 44: 415-433.

Sjøtun, K. and Lorentsen, S-H. 2000. Kelp forest ( Laminaria hyperborea) as habitat for juvenile gadoids. Poster presented at the 3rd European Phycological Congress, Belfast, North-Ireland, 21-26 July, 2003.

Kain, J.M. and Jones, N. S. 1969. The biology of Laminaria hyperborea. V. Comparison with early stages of competitors. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 49: 455-473.

Steen, H., 2010. Undersøkelser i forbindelse med prøvehøsting av stortare i Nord-Trøndelag 2010.

Kelly, E. (ed.) 2005. The role of kelp in the marine environment. Irish Wildlife Manuals, No. 17. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government, Dublin, Ireland.

Steen, H., Bodvin, T. and Moy, F., 2013. Effekter av tarehøsting på fisk og skalldyr Nord-Trøndelag 2012.

Krause-Jensen, D., Carstensen, J. and Dahl, K. 2007. Total and opportunistic algal cover in relation to environmental variables. Marine Pollution Bulletin,55: 114-125

Steen, H., Husa, V., Bodvin, T., Moy, F., Hansen, H.Ø., Sannæs, H. and Bosgraaf, S., 2014. Undersøkelser av stortarehøsting i Nordland i 2014.

MacDonald, D.S., Little, M., Eno, N.C. and Hiscock, K. 1996. Disturbance of benthic species by fishing activities: a sensitivity index. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 6(4): 257-268.

Steneck, R.S., Graham, M.H., Bourque, B.J., Corbett, D., Erlandson, J.M., Estes, J.A. and Tegner, M.J., 2002. Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental conservation, 29(04), pp.436-459

Mann, K. H. 1973. Seaweeds: Their productivity and strategy for growth. Science. 182: 975 - 983

Wilkinson, M., Scanlan, C.M. and Tittley, I. 1987. The attached algal flora of the estuary and Firth of Forth. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 93B: 343-354.

Mann, K. H. 1977. Destruction of kelp-beds by sea urchins: a cyclical phenomenon or irreversible degradation? Helgoland wiss Meeresunters 30:455-467.

McMath, A., Cooke, A., Jones, M., Emblow, C.S., Wyn, G., Roberts, S., Costello, M.J., Cook, B. and Sides, E.M. 2000. Sensitivity Mapping Of inshore marine biotopes in the southern Irish Sea (SensMap): Final report. Report by the Countryside Council for Wales ( CCW), Ecological Consultancy Services Ltd (Ecoserve), Dúchas, the Heritage Service.

Moore. P. G. 1973. The kelp fauna of north-east Britain. II. Multivariate classification: turbidity as an ecological factor. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 13: 127 - 163

North, W. 1971. Growth of individual fronds of the mature giant kelp, Macroystis. In The Biology of giant kelp beds (Macroystis) in California, edited by W. North. Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia Heft 32, Verlag von J. Cramer, 123 - 168

Pérez, R. 1971. Écologie, croissance et régénération, teneurs en acide alginique de Laminaria digitata sur les cotes de la Manche. Revue Travail de Institut des Peches Maritimes, 35:287-346.

Scheibling, R.E. and Gagnon, P., 2006. Competitive interactions between the invasive green alga Codium fragile ssp. tomentosoides and native canopy-forming seaweeds in Nova Scotia(Canada). Marine Ecology Progress Series, 325: 1-14.

Sjøtun, K., Fredriksen, S., Lein, T.E., Rueness, J. and Sivertsen, K., 1993. Population studies of Laminaria hyperborea from its northern range of distribution in Norway. Proceedings of the International Seaweed Symposium, 14: 215-221.

Smith, B. D. 1985. Recovery following experimental harvesting of Laminaria longicruris and Laminaria digitata in South Western of Nova Scotia. Helgolander Meeres Untersuchungen, 39: 83-101

Steen, H., Bodvin, T., Moy, F., Sannæs, H. and Hansen, H.Ø., 2015. Undersøkelser av stortarehøsting i Nordland i 2015.

Steneck, R.S., Graham, M.H., Bourque, B.J., Corbett, D., Erlandson, J.M., Estes, J.A. and Tegner, M.J., 2002. Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental conservation, 29(04), pp.436-459

Vea, J. and Ask, E., 2011. Creating a sustainable commercial harvest of Laminaria hyperborea, in Norway. Journal of Applied Phycology, 23(3), pp.489-494.

Vea, J. and Ask, E., 2011. Creating a sustainable commercial harvest of Laminaria hyperborea, in Norway. Journal of Applied Phycology, 23(3), pp.489-494.

Waage-Nielsen, E., Christie, H. and Rinde, E. 2003. Short-term dispersal of kelp fauna to cleared (kelp-harvested) areas. Hydrobiologia, 503: 77-91

Walker, F. T. and Richardson, W. D. 1955. An ecological investigation of Laminaria cloustoni edm. (L.hyperborea Fosl.) around Scotland. Journal of Ecology, 43, 26-38.

Werner, A. & Kraan, S. 2004. Review of the potential mechanisation of kelp harvesting in Ireland. Marine Resource Series, Marine Institute, Dublin

Wilkinson, M. 1995. Information review on the impact of kelp harvesting. Scottish Natural Heritage Review. No.34 (1995)

Wilkinson, M., Scanlan, C.M. and Tittley, I. 1987. The attached algal flora of the estuary and Firth of Forth. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 93B: 343-354.

Green Seaweeds

Red Seaweeds

Environment and Resource Technology Ltd. (ERT) Undated. Littoral seaweed resource assessment and management in the Western Isles. Condensed from the report produced by Environment and Resource Technology Ltd for the Minch Project. [Online]

Available at: http://www.cne-siar.gov.uk/minch/seaweed/seaweed.htm#TopOfPage [Accessed 24/5/16]

Maerl

Adey, W.H. and McKibbin, D.L., 1970. Studies on the maerl species Phymatolithon calcareum (Pallas) nov. comb. and Lithothamnion corallioides (Crouan) in the Ria de Vigo. Botanica Marina, 13, 100-106.

Hiscock, K., Sewell, J. and Oakley, J. 2005. Marine health check 2005. A report to gauge the health of the UK's sea-life.

Blunden, G., Binns, W.W. and Perks, F., 1975. Commercial collection and utilisation of maerl. Economic Botany, 29(2), pp.141-145.

Blunden, G., Binns, W.W. and Perks, F., 1975. Commercial collection and utilisation of maerl. Economic Botany, 29(2), pp.141-145.

Steller, D.L., Riosmena-Rodriguez, R, Foster, M.S., Roberts, C.A. 2003. Rhodolith bed diversity in the Gulf of California: the importance of rhodolith structure and consequences of disturbance. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 13: S5-S20

Burrows, M.T., Kamenos, N.A., Hughes, D.J., Stahl, H., Howe, J.A. and Tett, P., 2014. Assessment of carbon budgets and potential blue carbon stores in Scotland's coastal and marine environment. Review, 17, 101-161.

Bosence, D., Wilson, J. (2003). Maerl growth, carbonate production rates and accumulation rates in the northeast Atlantic. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 13: S21-S31.

Freiwald, A. and Henrich, R. 1994. Reefal coralline algal build-ups within the Arctic Circle: morphology and sedimentary dynamics under extreme environmental seasonality. Sedimentology, 41, 963-984.

Grall, J. and Hall‐Spencer, J.M., 2003. Problems facing maerl conservation in Brittany. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 13(S1), pp.S55-S64.

Scottish Natural Heritage ( SNH). 2015. Maerl - A Rocky Seaweed [Online]

Available at: http://www.snh.gov.uk/about-scotlands-nature/species/algae/marine-algae/maerl/ [Accessed 10/02/16]

Hall-Spencer, J.M., J. Grall, P.G. Moore and R.J.A. Atkinson. 2003. Bivalve fishing and maerl bed conservation in France and the UK- retrospecetive and prospect. Aquatic Conservation and Freshwater Ecosystems, 13, S33- S41.

IMPACT 1998. Marine habitat reviews presented by the United Kingdom. English Nature Peterborough. Oslo and Paris Conventions for the Prevention of Marine Pollution Working Group on Impacts on the Marine Environment.

Kamenos, N.A., Moore, P.G., and Hall-Spencer. J.M. 2003. Substratum heterogeneity of dredged vs. un-dredged maerl grounds. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc, 83, 411-413.

OSPAR 2010. background document for maerl beds. Report prepared by J. M., Hall-Spencer, J. Kelly, C.A. Maggs for the Department of the Environment, Heritage & Local Government ( DoEHLG), Ireland as lead country.

Available on-line at http://qsr2010.ospar.org/media/assessments/Species/P00491_maerl.pdf

Scottish Natural Heritage ( SNH). 2015. Maerl - A Rocky Seaweed [Online]

Available at: http://www.snh.gov.uk/about-scotlands-nature/species/algae/marine-algae/maerl/ [Accessed 10/02/16]

Seagrasses

Cooke, A. and McMath, A. 2001. Sensitivity and mapping of inshore marine biotopes in the southern Irish Sea (SensMap): development of a protocol for assessing and mapping the sensitivity of marine species and benthos to maritime activities.

Blanc, A. and Daguzan, J. 1998. Artificial surfaces for cuttlefish eggs (Sepia officianalis L.) in Morbihan Bay, France. Fisheries Research 38, 225-231.

D'Avack, E.A.S., Tyler-Walters, H. & Wilding, C., 2015. Zostera marina/angustifolia beds on lower shore or infralittoral clean or muddy sand. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line][last accessed 24.02.16]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.

Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitat/detail/257

Kirkman, H., and Kendrick, G.A., 1997. Ecological significant and commercial harvesting of drifting and beach-cast macro-algae and seagrasses in Australia: a review. Journal of Applied Phycology. 9: 311 - 326

Bos, A.R., Bouma, T.J., de Kort, G.L.J., van Katwijk, M.M. 2007. Ecosystem engineering by annual intertidal seagrass beds: Sediment accretion and modification. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 74: 344-348.

Borum, J., Wium-Andersen, S. 1980. Biomass and production of epiphytes on eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) in the Oresund, Denmark. Ophelia Suppl 1:57-64

Dale, A.L., McAllen, R. and Whelan, P. 2007. Management considerations for subtidal Zostera marina beds in Ireland. Irish Wildlife Manuals, No. 28. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government, Dublin, Ireland.

Connolly, R.M. 1997. Differences in the composition of small, motile invertebrate assemblages from seagrass and unvegetated habitats in a southern Australian estuary. Hydrobiologia 346, 137-148.

Gacia, E., Littler, M.M., Littler, D.S. 1999. An experimental test of the capacity of food web interactions (fish-epiphytes-seagrasses) to offset the negative consequences of eutrophication on seagrass communities. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 48: 757-766.

McRoy, C.P. and McMillan, C. 1977. Productivity ecology and physiology of seagrasses. In Seagrass Ecosytem, edited by C. P . McRoy and C. Helfferich. New York: Dekker, 53 - 88

Bradley, K., Houser, C. 2009. Relative velocity of seagrass blades: Implications for wave attenuation in low-energy environments. Journal of Geophysical Research 114:F01004

Cebrián J, Duarte C, Marbà N, Enríquez S (1997) Magnitude and fate of the production of four co-occurring Western Mediterranean seagrass species. Marine Ecology Progress Series 155:29-44

D'Avack, E.A.S., Tyler-Walters, H. & Wilding, C., 2015. Zostera marina/angustifolia beds on lower shore or infralittoral clean or muddy sand. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line][last accessed 24.02.16]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.

Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitat/detail/257

Heck Jnr, K.L., Hays, G. and Orth, R.J., 2003. Critical evaluation of the nursery role hypothesis for seagrass meadows. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 253, pp.123-136.

Ganter, B., 2000. Seagrass (Zostera spp.) as food for brent geese (Branta bernicla): an overview. Helgoland Marine Research, 54(2-3), pp.63-70.

Nybakken, J.W. 2001. Marine Biology: An Ecological Approach. Fifth Edition. Benjamin Cummings. 516pp

Christianen, M.J., van Belzen, J., Herman, P.M., van Katwijk, M.M., Lamers, L.P., van Leent, P.J. and Bouma, T.J., 2013. Low-canopy seagrass beds still provide important coastal protection services. PloS one, 8(5), p.e62413.

Burrows, M.T., Kamenos, N.A., Hughes, D.J., Stahl, H., Howe, J.A. and Tett, P., 2014. Assessment of carbon budgets and potential blue carbon stores in Scotland's coastal and marine environment. Review, 17, 101-161.

Davison, D.M., and Hughes, D.J., 1998. Zostera Biotopes (volume I). An overview of dynamics and sensitivity characteristics for conservation management of marine SACs. Scottish Association for Marine Science ( UK Marine SACs Project).;

Jackson, E.J., Rowden, A.A., Attrill, M.J., Bossey, S.J., and Jones, M.B. 2001. The importance of seagrass beds as a habitat for fishery species. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An annual review. 39: 269 - 303

Hughes, R.G., Lloyd, D., Ball, L., Emson, D., 2000. The effects of the polychaete Nereis diversicolor on the distribution and transplantation success of Zostera noltii. Helgoland Marine Research, 54, 129-136.

Fonseca, M.S. and Cahalan, J.A. 1992. A preliminary evaluation of wave attenuation by 4 species of seagrass. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 35: 565-576.

Kennedy, H. and Björk, M 2009. Seagrass meadows. In: Laffoley D, Grimsditch G (eds) The management of natural coastal carbon sinks. IUCN, Gland, p 23-29

Duarte, C. M. 2002. The future of seagrass meadows. Environmental Conservation, 29: 192-206.

Juanes, F. 2007. Role of habitat in mediating mortality during the postsettlement transition phase of temperate marine fishes. Journal of Fish Biology, 70: 661-677.

Nacken, M. & K. Reise. 2000. Effects of herbivorous birds on intertidal seagrass beds in the northern Wadden Sea. Helgoland Marine Research,. 54, 87-94.

Gacia, E., Duarte, C.M., Marbà, N., Terrados, J., Kennedy, H., Fortes, M.D. and Tri, N.H., 2003. Sediment deposition and production in SE-Asia seagrass meadows. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 56(5), pp.909-919.

Kennedy, H., Beggins, J., Duarte, C.M., Fourquean, J.W., Holmer, M., Marbá, N., and Middleburg, J.J. 2010. Seagrass sediments as a global carbon sink: Isotopic constraints. Global Biogeochem Cyc 24:1-8

Giesen, W.B.J.T., Van Katwijk, M.M., Den Hartog, C., 1990. Eelgrass condition and turbidity in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Aquatic Botany 37, 71-85

Reed, B.J. and Hovel, K.A. 2006. Seagrass habitat disturbance: how loss and fragmentation of eelgrass Zostera marina influences epifaunal abundance and diversity. Marine Ecology Progress Series 326:133-143.

Peterken, C.J. and Conacher, C.A. 1997. Seed germination and recolonisation of Zostera capricorni after grazing by dugongs. Aquatic Botany, 59(3), pp.333-340.

Gambi, M.C., Nowell, A.R.M., Jumars, P.A. 1990. Flume observations on flow dynamics in Zostera marina (Eelgrass) beds. Marine Ecology-Progress Series 61: 159-169.

Koch, M., G. Bowes, C. Ross, and X.-H. Zhang. 2013. Climate change and ocean acidification effects on seagrasses and marine macroalgae. Glob. Change Biol. 19:103-132.

Han, Q., Bouma, T. J., Brun, G.G., Suykerbuyk, W. and van Katwijk, M.M. 2012. Resilience of Zostera noltii to burial or erosion disturbances. Marine Ecology Progress Series 449: 133-143.

Seitz, R. D., Wennhage, H., Bergstro¨m, U., Lipcius, R. N., and Ysebaert, T. 2013. Ecological value of coastal habitats for commercially and ecologically important species. ICES Journal of Marine Science. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fst152.

Preen, A., 1995. Impacts of dugong foraging on seagrass habitats: observational and experimental evidence for cultivation grazing. Marine Ecology Progress Series 124, 201-213

Hemminga, M.A., Nieuwenhuize, J. 1990. Seagrass wrack-induced dune formation on a tropical coast (Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania). Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 31:499-502

Mellors, J., Marsh, H., Carruthers, T.J.B., Waycott, M. 2002. Testing the sediment trapping paradigm of seagrass: Do seagrasses influence nutrient status and sediment structure in tropical intertidal environments? Bulletin of Marine Science 71: 1215-1226.

Hastings, K., Hesp, P. and Kendrick, G.A. 1995. Seagrass loss associated with boat moorings at Rottnest Island, Australia. Ocean and Coastal Management 26(3): 225-246.

Verhoeven, J.T.A. & van Vierssen, W., 1978. Distribution and structure of communities dominated by Ruppia, Zostera and Potamogeton species in the inland waters of 'De Bol', Texel, The Netherlands. Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science, 6, 417-428.

Tubbs, C. R., and Tubbs, J.M., 1983. The distribution of Zostera and its exploitation by
wildfowl in the Solent, southern England. Aquat. Bot., 15: 223-239

Hendriks, I.E., Bouma, T.J., Morris, E.P., Duarte, C.M. 2010. Effects of seagrasses and algae of the Caulerpa family on hydrodynamics and particle-trapping rates. Marine Biology 157: 473-481.

Short, F.T. and Neckles, H.A., 1999. The effects of global climate change on seagrasses. Aquatic Botany, 63(3), pp.169-196.

Hemminga, M.A., and Duarte, C.M. 2000. Seagrass Ecology. Cambridge University Press

Hendriks, I.E., Sintes, T., Bouma, T.J., Duarte, C.M. 2008. Experimental assessment and modeling evaluation of the effects of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica on flow and particle trapping. Marine Ecology-Progress Series 356: 163-173.

Wium-Andersen, S., and Borum, J. 1984. Biomass variation and autotrophic production of an epiphyte-macrophyte community in a coastal Danish area: I. Eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) biomass and net production. Lophelia 23:165-179

Hiscock, K., Southward, A., Tittley, I. and Hawkins, S. 2004. Effects of changing temperature on benthic marine life in Britain and Ireland. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 14, 333-362.

Houser, C., and Hill, P. 2010. Wave Attenuation across an Intertidal Sand Flat: Implications for Mudflat Development. Journal of Coastal Research 26: 403- 411.

Holt, T.J., Hartnoll, R.G. and Hawkins, S.J. 1997. The sensitivity and vulnerability to man-induced change of selected communities: intertidal brown algal shrubs, Zostera beds and Sabellaria spinulosa reefs. English Nature, Peterborough.

Jackson, E.L., Langmead, O., Beaumont, N., Potts, T. and Hattam, C.A., 2012. Seagrass Ecosystem Interactions with Social and Economic Systems. UK Defra Funded Study.

Huntington, T.C., Roberts, H., Cousins, N., Pitta, V., Marchesi, N., Sanmamed, A., T. Hunter-Rowe, Fernandes, T.F., Tett, P., McCue, J. and Brockie, N. 2006. Some Aspects of the Environmental Impact of Aquaculture in Sensitive Areas. Report to the DG Fish and Maritime Affairs of the European Commission.

Koch, E., Ackerman, J., Verduin, J., and Keulen, M.. 2006. Fluid dynamics in seagrass ecology: from molecules to ecosystems. In: Anthony W. D. Larkum RJOaCMD (ed) Seagrasses: Biology, Ecology and Conservation. Springer, Dordrecht, Netherelands, p 193-225

Kantrud, H.A., 1991. Wigeongrass (Ruppia maritima L.): a literature review. [Online.] [Cited Friday, October 19, 2001].

Koch, E.W., Gust, G. 1999. Water flow in tide-and wave-dominated beds of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum. Marine Ecological Progress Series 184:63-72

Lancaster, J. (Ed.), McCallum, S., Lowe A.C., Taylor, E., Chapman A. & Pomfret, J. 2014. Development of detailed ecological guidance to support the application of the Scottish MPA selection guidelines in Scotland's seas. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No.491. Eelgrass Beds - supplementary document.

Le Hir, P., Monbet, Y., Orvain, F. 2007. Sediment erodability in sediment transport modelling: Can we account for biota effects? Continental Shelf Research 27: 1116-1142.

Nielsen, S.L., Sand-Jensen, K., Borum, J., and Geertz-Hansen, O. 2002. Depth Colonization of Eelgrass (Zostera marina) and Macroalgae as Determined by Water Transparency in Danish Coastal Waters. Estuaries, 25, 1025-1032.

Luhar, M., Coutu, S., Infantes, E., Fox, S., Nepf, H. 2010. Wave-induced velocities inside a model seagrass bed. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans 115: C12005.

Peterson, C.H., Summerson, H.C. and Fegley, S.R. 1987. Ecological consequences of mechanical harvesting of clams. Fishery Bulletin 85:281-298.

Madsen, J.D., Chambers, P.A., James, W.F., Koch, E.W., Westlake, D.F. 2001. The interaction between water movement, sediment dynamics and submersed macrophytes. Hydrobiologia 444: 71-84.

Philippart, C.J.M., 1994. Interactions between Arenicola marina and Zostera noltii on a tidal flat in the Wadden Sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series Preen, A., 1995. Impacts of dugong foraging on seagrass habitats: observational and experimental evidence for cultivation grazing. Marine Ecology Progress Series 124: 201-213. [online]

Available at: http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/111/m111p251.pdf [accessed on 19/05/16].

McGlathery, K. 2001. Macroalgal blooms contribute to the decline in seagrasses in nutrient-enriched coastal waters. Journal of Phycology 37: 453-456.

Phillips, R.C., & Menez, E.G., 1988. Seagrasses. Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences, no. 34.

Mellors, J., Marsh, H., Carruthers, T.J.B., Waycott, M. 2002. Testing the sediment trapping paradigm of seagrass: Do seagrasses influence nutrient status and sediment structure in tropical intertidal environments? Bulletin of Marine Science 71: 1215-1226.

Tillin, H.M., Hull, S.C., Tyler-Walters, H. 2010 . Development of a Sensitivity Matrix (pressures- MCZ/ MPA features). Report to the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs from ABPMer, Southampton and the Marine Life Information Network ( MarLIN) Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the UK. .Defra Contract No. MB0102 Task 3A, Report No. 22.

Orth, R.J., Carruthers, T.J., Dennison, W.C., Duarte, C.M., Fourqurean, J.W., Heck, K.L., Hughes, A.R., Kendrick, G.A., Kenworthy, W.J., Olyarnik, S. and Short, F.T., 2006. A global crisis for seagrass ecosystems.Bioscience, 56(12), pp.987-996.

Tyler-Walters, H. & Wilding, C.M. 2008b. Zostera marina/angustifolia beds in lower shore or infralittoral clean or muddy sand. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. [cited 26 & 27/03/2010].

Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitatecology.php?

Paul, M., Bouma, T.J., Amos., C.L. 2012. Wave attenuation by submerged vegetation: combining the effect of organism traits and tidal current. Marine Ecology-Progress Series 444: 31-41.

Tyler-Walters, H. and Wilding, C.M. 2008a. Zostera noltii beds in upper to mid shore muddy sand. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom [cited 11/02/2016].

Available from:
http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitatsensitivity.php?habitatid=318&code=2004.
Kingdom.

Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitat/detail/318].

van Katwijk, M.M., Bos, A.R., Hermus, D.C.R., Suykerbuyk, W. 2010. Sediment modification by seagrass beds: Muddification and sandification induced by plant cover and environmental conditions. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 89: 175-181.

Verhoeven, J.T.A. & van Vierssen, W., 1978. Distribution and structure of communities dominated by Ruppia, Zostera and Potamogeton species in the inland waters of 'De Bol', Texel, The Netherlands. Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science, 6, 417-428.

van Keulen, M., and Borowitzka, M.A. 2002. Comparison of water velocity profiles through morphologically dissimilar seagrasses measured with a simple and inexpensive current meter. Bull Mar Sci 71:1257-1267

Vonk, J.A., Christianen, M.J. and Stapel, J., 2010. Abundance, edge effect, and seasonality of fauna in mixed-species seagrass meadows in southwest Sulawesi, Indonesia. Marine Biology Research, 6(3), pp.282-291.

Ward, L.G., Kemp, W.M., Boynton, W.R. 1984. The influence of waves and seagrass communities on suspended particulates in an estuarine embayment. Marine Geology 59: 85-103.

Zieman, J.C., Orth, R., Phillips, R.C., Thayer, G. & Thorhaug, A., 1984. The effects of oil on seagrass ecosystems. In Restoration of habitats impacted by oil spills (ed. J. Cairns & A.L. Buikema Jr.), pp. 37-64. Boston: Butterworth Publ.

Waycott, M., Duarte, C.M., Carruthers, T.J., Orth, R.J., Dennison, W.C., Olyarnik, S., Calladine, A., Fourqurean, J.W., Heck, K.L., Hughes, A.R. and Kendrick, G.A., 2009. Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(30), pp.12377-12381.

Contact

Back to top