UK Cetacean Conservation Strategy

High-Level Recommendations

While some significant steps have been made or are underway to address some of the pressures affecting cetaceans in UK waters, more can be done. It is therefore essential to build upon these existing efforts to identify areas for further focus from a management and research perspective.

Through the process outlined in the previous section, six high-level recommendations covering management, research, monitoring, communication and partnership working, have been identified. These recommendations reflect that for some species there is still limited knowledge of their populations and vulnerability to pressures. Further research and monitoring is therefore required to inform the development of any future recommendations.

Each of the high-level recommendations address specific pressures acting on cetaceans in UK waters. Within each recommendation is a list of work already underway. From those, evidence and/or management gaps and areas for improvement have been identified, so that each high-level recommendation also includes a list of potential further actions that could be taken. These potential actions have been developed by the Strategy working group using a combination of evidence and expert judgement. It is not an exhaustive list, and these will be kept under review and updated as new evidence becomes available. The impacts of climate change have been considered in the development of these recommendations.

However, delivery of the Strategy to ensure the protection and conservation of cetaceans in UK waters is not just for governments, but requires the coordinated effort of many stakeholders, including government, its agencies, conservation organisations, marine industries, local communities, academia and the tourism sector. These high-level recommendations are therefore intended to form a framework for coordination of government and stakeholder action through partnership working.

High-level recommendation 1 : Raise awareness and reduce potential impacts of wildlife tourism and recreational activities on cetaceans in UK waters.

Pressure: Physical disturbance, physical injury, acoustic disturbance.

Spatial extent: All UK waters with some local focus points reflecting notable hot spots for wildlife tourism and areas of high recreational boat use.

Context: Marine wildlife tourism, while important to the UK economy, has the potential to negatively affect certain cetacean species. These impacts can include (but are not limited to) disturbance, animals moving away from preferred feeding habitats, masking communication and physical injury. They also have the potential for negative impacts on the reproductive success and overall health of populations. While there is legislation and codes of conduct in place, further efforts are required in partnership with the sector to promote the health and welfare of UK cetaceans.

Collectively we are already:

Raising awareness of the potential impacts of wildlife tourism on cetaceans, through the development and implementation of wildlife watching codes across the UK with a focus on reducing these impacts. The Scottish Marine Wildlife Watching Code (SMWWC; revised in 2017) offers practical guidance to anyone watching wildlife in Scotland, and in English waters the Marine and Coastal Wildlife Code was published in 2023. There are several regional codes of conduct in Wales, alongside a Wales-wide initiative, Wild Seas Wales (introduced in 2016). In Northern Ireland, marine wildlife disturbance guidance documents have been published.

Collaborating with statutory partners and NGOs through the Partnership for Action Against Wildlife Crime (PAW) to reduce wildlife crime in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Specifically, PAW Marine raises awareness of wildlife crime in the marine and coastal environment, advises on regulatory issues and makes sure marine wildlife crime is tackled effectively. There are also regional initiatives such as Operation Seabird established in Yorkshire to reduce the impacts of recreational activities on sensitive marine wildlife.

Providing advice and training on reducing disturbance to wildlife for wildlife tourism operators, across the UK through the delivery of the WiSe (Wildlife Safe) training scheme.

We can raise awareness and reduce potential impacts of wildlife tourism and recreational activities in UK waters through:

Research, development, and knowledge improvement

• Promote research to better understand the impacts of disturbance from wildlife tourism on cetaceans, where appropriate.
• Promote research to evaluate if existing codes of conduct are effective.

Communication, education, and outreach

• Promote national and regional codes of conduct to raise awareness across recreational groups and the tourism industry of the potential to cause disturbance from recreational activities.
• Promote training for wildlife operators on reducing disturbance to cetaceans. This could be linked to the WiSe scheme, or other equivalent schemes.
• Explore options to develop guidelines for the use of drones around cetaceans that could be incorporated into local and regional codes of conduct.
• Increase awareness of the mechanisms for reporting suspected wildlife crime and continue engagement with wildlife crime officers.

Management

• Explore whether there is a need for a licensing or permitting scheme for wildlife watching vessels in specific areas where wildlife tourism may present a high level of disturbance to cetaceans. This could be linked to the WiSe scheme, or other equivalent schemes.

High-level recommendation 2 : Improve understanding of the impacts of hazardous substances, marine litter and biotoxins on cetaceans.

Pressure: Marine pollution.

Spatial Extent: All UK waters, although some regions may present higher risk (e.g. coastal industrial centres where there is overlap with high densities of cetaceans).

Context: Marine pollution is a broad term that includes a wide range of hazardous substances such as legacy pollutants including heavy metals and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) like Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs); and emerging pollutants such as PFAS (poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances) and plasticisers, as well as marine litter (e.g. abandoned, lost or discarded fishing gear, macro- and micro-plastics). Naturally occurring biotoxins, harmful algal blooms, and water quality issues can also impact cetacean species.

Hazardous substances are widespread in cetaceans in UK and wider waters, although the levels of these vary due to differences in exposure and impacts between species and locations. While scientific methods to quantify the levels of hazardous substances, particularly PCBs in cetaceans, are available, others are not routinely measured. It can therefore be difficult to isolate the effect of pollution exposure from other stressors on measures of individual and population health. Additionally, there are challenges in taking biological samples from live animals, so most studies are undertaken on samples from stranded individuals, which can affect pollution measurements and whether they reflect levels in the wider population.

Marine litter is defined as any persistent, manufactured or processed solid material discarded, disposed of, or abandoned in the marine and coastal environment. It includes items that are deliberately discarded or unintentionally lost into the sea or on the coastline from land via rivers, drainage, sewage systems or winds. Marine litter poses threats, not just of entanglement, but also ingestion, which can have fatal consequences for individual animals.

Collectively we are already:

Addressing marine litter in England through the Environmental Improvement Plan (EIP23^[2]), which set out ambitions to eliminate all avoidable plastic waste by 2042 and to significantly reduce and, where possible, prevent all kinds of marine plastic pollution.

Taking action on marine litter across Scotland through the Marine Litter Strategy for Scotland to work towards meeting our legal obligations.

Funding Fishing for Litter schemes which provide fishers with the means to collect and dispose of litter collected during fishing activities.

Supporting UK strandings programmes that are integral to ongoing work, including studies into the population-level impact of POPs, and in particular polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) on harbour porpoise.

Working with international partners to increase knowledge/take action, including through the HASEC (Hazardous Substances and Eutrophication Committee) and EIHA (Environmental Impacts of Human Activities Committee) groups at OSPAR and leading on a range of actions in the second Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter.

Developing solutions for the waste management of end-of-life fishing gear with industry through research and stakeholder engagement. Currently, there is a nationwide collection and recycling scheme operating in Wales, and multiple small-scale enterprises across the UK.

Taking action on single-use-plastics by the UK and Devolved Governments through the introduction of restrictions covering a variety of commonly used single-use-plastic products, as well as continuing to develop options for further items.

We can improve understanding of the impacts of hazardous substances, marine litter and biotoxins on cetaceans by:

• Research, development and knowledge improvement
• Improve data collection on the prevalence and levels of legacy (e.g. PCBs, heavy metals) and emerging (plasticisers and PFAS) contaminants in marine mammals through existing strandings programmes to develop better indicators for toxicity thresholds (see Pilot Assessment of Status and Trends of Persistent Chemicals in Marine Mammals).
• Address the knowledge gap in the relationship between exposure to concentrations of hazardous substances and microplastics in the environment, the contaminant levels measured in animal tissue, and the consequences for individual health.
• Improve mechanisms of detection and analysis of harmful algal blooms and biotoxins.
• Communication, education, and outreach
• Improve linkages between policy and science to better inform as to the risk and impact of marine litter and contaminants on marine mammals.
• Management
• Reduce sources of litter that impact the coastal and marine environments and support the removal of marine litter through delivery of the individual UK litter strategies.

High-level recommendation 3 : Reduce, and where possible, eliminate bycatch and entanglement of cetaceans in UK waters.

Pressure: Removal of non-target species (bycatch or entanglement), physical injury.

Spatial Extent: All UK waters, although several regions and fisheries are recognised for specific acute pressures.

Context: Incidental capture (bycatch and entanglement) in fisheries remains one of the most significant threats to cetaceans globally. Approximately 1,000 cetaceans were estimated to have been bycaught in UK fisheries in UK waters in 2020^[3]. In the UK, chronic entanglement and acute bycatch remain a concern from a welfare and population conservation perspective respectively. Entanglement of cetaceans in creels and ghost fishing gear (known as ‘abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG)) is a concern in some regions of the UK, with baleen whales most reported entangled in creel lines and other ropes in Scottish waters and there are concerns in both Wales and Northern Ireland. In English waters, entanglement in nets such as bottom-set gillnet and tangle nets is a particular concern for harbour porpoise, although monitoring programmes have also recorded bycatch of other species including Atlantic-white-sided dolphin.

Collectively we are already:

Working together to implement the Marine Wildlife Bycatch Mitigation Initiative (BMI) to minimise and, where possible, eliminate bycatch of sensitive marine species. This initiative brings together existing work such as the UK Bycatch Monitoring Programme and Clean Catch.

Supporting bycatch mitigation t rials on the use of multiple mitigation measures, such as pingers and Passive Acoustic Reflectors (PARS) in gillnets, through Clean Catch UK and in partnership with Cornish fishers and Cornwall Wildlife Trust.

Requiring mandatory reporting of bycatch and entanglement of marine mammals for all fishing vessels operating in UK waters and working with fishers to encourage timely reporting^[4] including in aquaculture^[5].

Working through the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) to strengthen the requirement to report lost fishing gear and allow mapping of the location of ALDFG to inform policy action to prevent entanglement, either through targeted remediation or other management measures.

Supporting research to reduce entanglement of baleen whales in fisheries through trials on the use of weighted groundlines^[6] through the Scottish Entanglement Alliance (SEA) project.

We can reduce, and where possible, eliminate bycatch and entanglement of cetaceans in UK waters by:

• Research, development and knowledge improvement
  • Continue to support bycatch monitoring programmes, including the use of remote electronic monitoring, to identify high risk areas and gear types associated with cetacean bycatch and to assess the effectiveness of management measures.
  • Improve understanding of the spatial extent of fishing effort and gear type in UK waters.
  • Improve understanding of the sources, distribution and potential impacts of ALDFG, including investigating the interactions of these with other offshore structures.
  • Work with fisheries and technical experts to further develop innovative gear types and mitigation measures to reduce bycatch and entanglement of cetaceans in UK waters.
  • Update risk maps for bycatch and entanglement for cetaceans in UK waters including new data, for example inshore fisheries and offshore renewable developments.
• Communication, education and outreach
  • Work with technical experts, stakeholders and conservation organisations to develop approaches to reducing and removing ALDFG in the marine environment.
  • Work with stakeholders to raise awareness of reporting requirements and remove barriers to reporting.
• Management
  • Work collaboratively with the fishing sector on the practicality of mitigation measures, including identifying areas of fisheries for mitigation trials where appropriate.
  • Develop and implement technical and spatial measures to minimise cetacean bycatch and entanglement, where appropriate.
  • Embed cetacean bycatch mitigation into UK Fisheries Management Plans (FMPs) where appropriate.

High-level recommendation 4 : Manage underwater noise at levels that do not adversely affect cetacean populations.

Pressure: Acoustic disturbance.

Spatial Extent: All UK waters, although sources and levels will vary across different areas and industries.

Context: Underwater noise in the marine environment may adversely impact cetaceans by causing injury, physiological stress and behavioural responses, depending on the loudness and frequencies of the noise. Furthermore, growing pressures relating to marine industries (e.g. marine renewable energy, oil and gas, ports and harbours) also have the potential to introduce multiple acoustic stressors, necessitating a better understanding of the cumulative impacts of such activities. For cetaceans, impacts of acoustic disturbance or injury at the individual level may be a concern for animal welfare considerations as well as having population-level consequences. For most species and activities, the key knowledge gap is understanding how the impacts of man-made marine noise may lead to effects at a population level, particularly for vulnerable/threatened species, and how to quantify those risks of impact, with the aim to manage underwater noise at levels that do not adversely affect marine animals, including cetaceans.

Collectively we are already:

Gathering evidence on underwater noise and potential management measures, including through Defra’s Offshore Wind Enabling Actions Programme (OWEAP), as well as improving understanding of the impacts of offshore wind farm construction through targeted scientific projects at offshore wind farms in Scottish waters.

Recording impulsive noise through the Marine Noise Registry, to inform the UK Marine Strategy Assessment of GES of the UK seas.

Reducing noise from offshore wind piling in English waters, through the utilisation of noise reduction methods where possible (as set out in the Marine Noise Policy Paper).

Reducing noise from unexploded ordnance clearance in accordance with the updated Joint Position Statement.

Working with international partners on developing approaches to managing underwater noise, such as through the OSPAR Regional Action Plan for Underwater Noise.

Supporting acoustic monitoring in UK waters with the aim of collecting long-term data on cetacean distribution, relative abundance, and underwater noise in data deficient areas (for example, through delivery of the Scottish Passive Acoustic Network (SPAN) project).

We can improve understanding of underwater noise to enable it to be managed at levels that do not adversely affect sensitive species, including cetacean populations by:

• Monitoring
• Research, development and knowledge improvement
  • understand the potential impacts of (current) underwater noise levels in UK waters, to guide management and conservation measures;
  • consolidate and improve knowledge on sources of both impulsive and continuous noise from licensable and non-licensable activities;
  • improve understanding of noise propagation;
  • improve understanding of the mechanisms of noise impacts on cetaceans;
  • improve development of assessment tools to understand cetacean population level consequences of disturbance and auditory injury.
• Communication, education and outreach
• Support development of good data sharing practices across stakeholders through dedicated frameworks or platforms.
• Management
• Contribute to actions under the OSPAR Regional Action Plan for Underwater Noise.

Support underwater noise monitoring and modelling programmes to increase understanding of the levels of underwater noise in UK waters.

Improve knowledge of the impacts and management of underwater noise, including through relevant research and development activities. This could include, for example, activities to:

Increase awareness of potential impacts of underwater noise on marine life (including cetaceans) and options for its management.

Incorporate underwater noise considerations into national, regional and sectoral marine policy, management and/or planning as deemed appropriate.

High-level recommendation 5 : Improve understanding of supporting habitats and prey availability to cetaceans to improve management and conservation.

Pressure: Changes to habitat and prey availability.

Spatial extent: All UK waters.

Context: Physical changes to supporting habitats (such as construction on or over habitats, removal of sediment, structural changes to the habitat) may have a direct impact on important factors relevant to cetacean species, such as availability and energy density of prey species. For prey species that deposit their eggs on the seabed, such as sandeel and herring, the physical condition of the habitat is a particular concern as impacts to the habitat may ultimately influence availability of prey. Consequently, activities with the potential to cause significant degradation or abrasion of seabed habitats (e.g. hydraulic dredging, aggregate extraction, dumping, scouring, fishing with certain gear types) or change current flows may result in the local depletion of prey species. Furthermore, interactions with other industries, including depletion of prey species by fisheries, may also impact certain species of cetacean that rely on commercially valued prey species.

Collectively we are already:

Protecting sandeel populations from commercial exploitation through closure of fishing for sandeel in all Scottish waters and English waters of the North Sea, which will bring potential benefits to the wider ecosystem, including cetaceans.

Combatting Climate change through delivery of renewable energy , ensuring adverse impacts on cetaceans are identified at strategic level through Sectoral Marine Planning for Offshore Wind Energy and project level through mitigation and where appropriate, compensation.

Designating protected areas for sensitive prey / habitats, with many special areas of conservation (SACs), Nature Conservation Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and Marine Conservation Zones (MCZs) protecting habitats and species that are ecologically important to cetaceans, as well as many sites listing specific species of cetacean as designated features.

We can improve understanding of supporting habitats and prey availability to cetaceans to improve management and conservation by:

• Research, development and knowledge improvement
  • Improve resolution and update mapping of spawning groups for key cetacean prey species.
  • Support further research into supporting habitat and prey linkages to cetacean ecology.
• Management
  • Use the best available evidence to assess and address potential impacts on supporting habitats, and consequently to cetacean populations, from future consented marine renewable developments (including the implementation of appropriate compensation where required).
  • Where appropriate, explore opportunities to include actions, and measures, to address relevant impacts on prey availability into the future development of Fisheries Management Plans (FMPs).
  • Improve current management for forage fish species. For example, where appropriate, implement planned fisheries management measures in MPAs for seabed habitats.

High-level recommendation 6 : Building the evidence base through coordinated scientific research and monitoring to improve understanding of the conservation status of cetaceans in UK waters.

Pressure: Links across all pressures, given lack of information for some species to inform assessments of cetacean conservation and population status.

Spatial extent: All UK waters, with offshore regions and species being more data poor than inshore.

Context:

Evidence is key to delivering the vision, aim and objectives of the Strategy. This is underpinned by the (respective countries) Conservation Regulations and UKMS (Part I) which includes a requirement to assess the status of cetaceans in UK waters. As such, the UK and devolved governments and SNCBs co-ordinate and participate in several targeted surveillance and monitoring programmes and commission research on specific issues. Despite this, many data gaps remain at the broader population level that make it difficult to confidently report on the status of many cetaceans in UK waters. This can make it challenging to monitor existing conservation risks, detect emerging issues and assess the risk from human activities. There is a need for both monitoring and research at the broader population level to address these challenges.

This recommendation is focused on monitoring and research at the broader population level, not specific to a pressure. Any research and monitoring requirements relevant to specific pressures are captured in the relevant high-level recommendations.

Collectively we are already:

Delivering world renowned research and science through undertaking and co-funding research through a range of mechanisms, including the Scottish Marine Energy Research Programme (ScotMER), the Offshore Wind Evidence & Change Programme (OWEC), the Ecological Consequences of Offshore Wind research programme (EcoWIND) and Marine Natural Capital and Ecosystem Assessment Programme (mNCEA).

Contributing to the Small Cetaceans in European Atlantic waters and the North Sea (SCANS) survey programme. SCANS IV used a mixture of ship and aerial survey, covering 20 cetacean species and 1.75 million km² area, providing updated abundance estimates and trends for the most regularly occurring cetacean species in European Atlantic waters and the North Sea.

Improving understanding of pressures and threats acting on cetaceans through ongoing delivery of UK strandings programmes (e.g. Scottish Marine Animal Stranding Scheme (SMASS) and Cetacean Strandings Investigation Programme (CSIP)).

Increasing monitoring of cetacean species for disease events such as Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza.^[7]

Championing cetacean conservation through the UK’s ongoing global contributions to OSPAR, Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (ASCOBANS), International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) and the International Whaling Commission (IWC).

We can build the evidence base to improve understanding of the conservation status of cetaceans in UK waters by:

• Monitoring
• Support national and regional level monitoring programmes of specific populations of cetaceans (e.g. coastal bottlenose dolphin) that contribute to wider reporting requirements on status in UK.
• Develop and implement monitoring programmes for MPAs / MCZs.
• Research, development and knowledge improvement
• Explore the need to develop an overarching UK framework on research requirements to improve knowledge on ecology of cetaceans applicable to the whole of the UK, with regional-specific prioritisation included.

Continue to support, and increase efficiency of broadscale surveys such as SCANS, to support regional and national monitoring.

Support the work of the Joint Cetacean Data Programme (JCDP) and other cetacean-related data collation schemes.