Tackling child poverty - progress report 2024-2025: annex b - focus report on gender and poverty

A gendered lens to cost of living

A well-known driver of poverty is the amount that a household has to spend on standard costs of living. These are goods and services considered essential to day-to-day life. In this chapter we look at specific indicators as well as policies that are relevant around cost of living. This includes transport, housing, fuel, food, debt, credit and savings. The cost of childcare can represent a sizeable proportion of a household income, but it can also be a significant barrier to increasing income through paid employment, particularly for women. For the purpose of this report, childcare has been included as part of the income from employment chapter.

This section will explore key areas relevant to the cost of living and summarise evidence on experiences by gender. However, this chapter should be read in the context of the ongoing cost of living crisis we continue to experience in Scotland. The NACWG recently published a report summarising the multiple ways in which women have been disproportionately affected by the cost of living crisis. The report shows that women are: more likely to be in debt than men; more reliant on benefits; less likely to have savings; and less likely to have access to an occupational pension. ^[78] The findings also resonate with gendered differences on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Financial resilience is lower amongst women and will limit their ability to respond to crisis. However, this impact is not only economic, it also has significant consequences on mental and physical health. When asked about the wider impacts of the cost of living situation in Scotland today, 34% of women reported that their physical health has been negatively affected (compared to 27% of men) and 48% of women reported that their mental health has been negatively affected (compared to 39% of men).^[79]

From a gender perspective, women often function as ‘poverty managers’ in the home and are often responsible for managing household budgets and making finances stretch to meet household need. Research from the Poverty Alliance illustrates how women adopt a range of coping strategies to manage reduced incomes and increased costs. However, they noted a concern for the future as many women stated that they had run out of ways to cope with rising costs.^[80] The Scottish Women’s Budget Group also described women as 'shock absorbers' of poverty because they often cut back on essentials for themselves so that the effects are not felt by the rest of the household. ^[81]

This chapter will explore some key areas that represent significant cost for families’ budgets. These include: transport, housing, fuel/energy and food. It also includes financial resilience in the form of savings and/or other sources of stability.

Transport

When we consider transport from a poverty perspective, we do so in relation to the costs of transport. This is the proportion of a household income spent on transport. Data on transport costs by gender is limited as this is collected at a household level and not for individuals. However, the issues relating to transport are not just about the cost. Through the lens of poverty, it is also important how we can make sure families can access places of work, education, leisure and social networks. It is here that we find transport has gendered impacts. This is because of differences in mode and use of transport by gender. There are also gendered differences in safety and access when using transport.

Women are generally less likely to have access to private transport and are more dependent on public options. For example, women (40%) are more likely to report using the bus at least once in the last month than men (35%). ^[82] Women are also more likely to work part time and do a greater amount of unpaid work including caring for children. This means that they are often required to travel outwith peak times when availability is usually reduced, with transport systems prioritising full-time commuter patterns. This means that women are more likely than men to make multi-purpose journeys, in order to balance childcare, paid work and household responsibilities.^[83]

Safety is experienced by men and women differently. Men are more likely to be the victims of casualties in relation to road accidents. In 2023, there were 1,944 people seriously injured in road collisions. Of these, 1,327 were men and 757 were women. Looking at deaths from road collisions in this same period, 112 men were killed compared to 43 women.^[84] However, feelings of safety tell a different story. The Scottish Crime and Justice Survey collects data on the proportion of adults that feel safe on different modes of transport. Women consistently report feeling less safe when walking (63% of women felt safe compared to 90% of men), using buses (85% of women felt safe compared to 95% of men), or when using trains (87% of women felt safe compared to 93% of men). Transport Scotland undertook a programme of research on the issue of women’s and girls’ safety on public transport. The study highlighted that women and girls shoulder significant responsibility for adapting their behaviours to try to ‘be’ and to ‘feel’ safe when travelling on public transport. In particular, the study highlighted a range of issues that impacted on women’s and girls’ safety including: mode of travel; timing of travel and travel routes; reliability of transport; antisocial behaviour, often exacerbated by alcohol and drug use; unwanted attention, often of a sexual nature; how age, gender and race can compound issues regarding safety; and a perceived lack of support and action to deal with and follow up on incidents where women and girls felt unsafe.

In the context of poverty, transport is important to ensure families can access services and their places of work. Policies in this space require a gender lens that acknowledges different needs of fathers and mothers in terms of use and access, but also around safety of roads and public transport.

Housing

Housing has a gendered dimension. Overall, women are less likely to own property than men, and lone parents (of whom 92% in Scotland are women) and working aged women with no children are the least likely groups to own a property. ^[85] Women in Scotland are overall more likely to be in receipt of Housing Benefit or the housing element of Universal Credit than men.^[86]

However, overall, men are more likely to experience homelessness. Of the homeless population, 58% are male, which compares to 48% of the Scottish population. This is further emphasized amongst those who are rough sleeping, with 85% of those reporting rough sleeping in the previous 3 months being men. Men are also more likely to experience repeat homelessness (71% of those homeless and previously assessed as homeless in the last year were men). Single male households are least likely to secure settled accommodation (79% compared to 81% of single female households), whereas households with children were more likely to secure settled accommodation than those without (85% compared to 78%). ^[87]

A range of evidence shows that there is a very strong link between violence against women and women’s housing insecurity. In fact, women are more likely than men to be homeless as a result of a violent or abusive household dispute.⁸⁷ Policy action in this area has included commitments in the Ending Homelessness Together Action Plan to focus efforts on providing legislative protections for people experiencing domestic abuse, while the pilot Fund to Leave provided women with financial support when leaving a relationship with an abusive partner.

For those who experience intersecting discrimination, barriers around housing will be more pronounced. This includes women in poverty, disabled women, minority ethnic women and refugee women, LGBT+ women, older and younger women, women who sell sex, lone parents and women who are unpaid carers.^[88]

Diverse needs and barriers faced by men and women. There is increasing recognition that there are: different contributing factors and risks, both structural and individual, that push men and women into homelessness; different health, safety and wellbeing impacts of homelessness; and different gendered experiences of, and interactions with, homelessness support services.^[89]

Any response to the housing emergency in Scotland needs to be made from a gendered perspective to meet the diverse and specific needs of men and women.

Fuel

Fuel insecurity is measured at household level with the latest data available in the updated measurement framework. There is very limited evidence on experiences of fuel insecurity by gender. A report by the Scottish Women’s Budget Group highlights some specific households who are struggling to afford energy costs. They particularly refer to lone parent families (most likely to be headed by women). The survey found that 80% of lone parent households were struggling with energy costs and 43% were not having baths or showers to reduce energy costs.⁸¹

We have limited evidence on the experiences of fuel insecurity by gender, but we know lone parent families (most likely headed by women) report struggling with energy costs.

Food

In Scotland, we know that 13% of children lived in households with low or very low food security in 2021-24. Amongst households with children in relative poverty, food insecurity increases to 22%.^[90] Younger adults aged 16-44 were more likely to worry about running out of food (20%) compared to those aged 65 or over (5%).^[91] There were no significant differences between men’s and women’s experience of food insecurity.

However, understanding experiences of food insecurity is complex. This is because it can often be hidden and not everyone in the household will be affected by food insecurity in the same way. Parents may have worried about running out of food or reduced their own meal sizes, but protected their young children from this experience. Some communities, may also protect each other. For example, there was a reported absence of food insecurity amongst Pakistani women, which could be attributed to support from social/family networks, resource management within the household, and cultural and religious frameworks. Some reported that food aid was avoided out of shame, but even awareness of food bank existence was low amongst the community,^[92] while evidence from deprived communities in Glasgow showed that young men and those with mental health problems are more likely to use food banks.^[93]

Reliance on food banks can also limit food choices for families. The Scottish Women’s Convention gathered views from women using food banks who highlighted the high prevalence of canned goods and a limited availability of fresh fruit and vegetables. They also highlighted that many supermarkets offer discounts on unhealthy items, making healthier choices less attainable for those with tight budgets.^[94]

Experiences of food insecurity are difficult to disentangle and will vary depending on a range of factors, such as social networks, family support or cultural backgrounds.

Financial resilience

Personal wealth is one of the key components of women’s and men’s standard of living. Wealth can be used as a source of finance for various life/family demands, and wealth can also provide financial resilience by reducing vulnerability to events such as unemployment, illness or separation. Personal wealth can also be a protector against economic crises such as the Covid-19 pandemic or the ongoing cost of living crisis.

In the context of understanding experiences of poverty, we know that families living in low income households find it difficult to save and build wealth. This is because these families spend a greater proportion of their income on essentials such as housing, energy and food, leaving little, if any, money for savings.^[95] Moreover, many low income families have seen their savings or other assets depleting in order to cope with the challenges of recent years – that is the impact of the pandemic and the ongoing cost of living crisis.^[96]

Women earn less on average than men (Earnings indicator), are less likely to be paid the Living Wage (Living Wage indicator) and are more likely to not be working due to looking after children or home (Labour market ‘inactivity’ due to caring indicator). This may lead to women having a lower independent income. A lower independent income reduces a person’s ability to save. Indeed, we know that women’s pension or savings wealth is smaller than that of men’s (Wealth indicator).

Overall, financial resilience in recent years has worsened, with levels of debt increasing and lower access to affordable credit.^[97],[98] Household level data is not able to provide an accurate picture of gender differences, with the Wealth and Assets survey data suggesting male and female headed households having similar levels of unmanageable debt. However, a wide range of evidence shows that women are more likely than men to be in debt. Specifically, research by the Poverty Alliance and the Scottish Women’s Budget Group, illustrates how many women struggled to repay existing debts or were at risk of accumulating more debt as a result of rising costs, inadequate incomes, the social security system and low-paid work.^[99]

Various reports explain why women are more likely to be in debt. These include having lower income levels, additional expenditure due to childcare and higher household arrears (i.e. council tax, energy costs).^[100] There are certain groups of women particularly affected by debt, such as minority ethnic women, disabled women, young women, lone parents, and mothers of young children.^[101],[102]

Indeed, the Financial Conduct Authority’s Financial Lives survey highlights that compared to men, women had lower levels of financial capability and confidence, financial resilience, fewer investable assets and were more likely to be turned down for a credit application.^[103] These findings have been consistent for the past three reporting years.

In couple households, there may be income pooling in place. This is when partners receive different incomes, but face shared expenditures. Sometimes, this can lead to an unequal reliance on the sharing of income to maintain their standard of living.

Some women living in couple households may experience coerced debt. This is a form of domestic abuse. It involves an abusive partner building debt in the victim-survivor’s name without their consent or knowledge or through coercion – forcing or threatening them to do so. Women are more likely to be victims of domestic abuse, and coerced debt, and the resulting effects of it can trap women and children with dangerous perpetrators as they are not able to afford the costs of separation and rebuilding their lives. Public sector debt^[104] represents the largest proportion of debt owned by women reaching for Women’s Aid.^[105]

Financial resilience varies by gender, with women having a lower independent income which can reduce their ability to save. This results in low financial resilience and can make women, and in turn their children, more vulnerable to unexpected circumstances or crises.