Dog training - use of devices: report

2. Definitions

a) Sentience. Dogs are sentient. SAWC defines animal sentience as: ‘the ability to have physical and emotional experiences, which matter to the animal, and which can be positive and negative' ³(60). Animal welfare and the state of sentience are inseparable; positive emotional experiences are fundamental to good animal welfare, and negative emotional experiences, or suffering, should be prevented as they result in negative animal welfare.

b) Animal Welfare. SAWC defines animal welfare as ‘the mental and physical state of an individual as it experiences and engages with its environment’. In the Animal Health and Welfare (Scotland) Act 2006⁴, welfare of animals is associated with meeting their needs, s24(1). These needs include, s24(3):

i. its need for a suitable environment

ii. its need for a suitable diet

iii. its need to be able to exhibit normal behaviour patterns

iv. any need it has to be housed with, or apart from, other animals

v. its need to be protected from suffering, injury and disease

c) Prevention of harm. In the Animal Health and Welfare (Scotland) Act 2006,prevention of harm is associated with prevention of unnecessary suffering, for example through an act, s19(1)(a), or omission, s19(2)(a), or by permitting another person to cause unnecessary suffering, s(19)(3)(a). Considerations include whether the conduct concerned was for a legitimate purpose such as benefiting the animal, s19(4)(c)(i), or protecting a person, property or other animal, s19(4)(c)(ii).

d) Operant conditioning of behaviour. Operant conditioning is a learning process, where behaviour is modified through a learned association in the animal linking its behaviour with punishment (which reduces the behaviour) or reinforcement (which increases the expression of the behaviour). The following definitions, known as ‘The four Quadrants of Operant Conditioning’ are widely used in the dog training and behaviour literature.

i. Positive punishment – Adding an aversive stimulus, such as shouting, applying electric shock, or tugging on a lead when an undesired behaviour is performed, thus decreasing the likelihood of an undesired behaviour.

ii. Negative reinforcement – Ending an aversive stimulus when the desired behaviour is performed, for example, a sustained sound or shock that is stopped when the animal performs the desired behaviour, thus increasing the likelihood of a desired behaviour.

iii. Positive reinforcement – Adding good things/rewards when the desired behaviour is performed, thus increasing the likelihood of a desired behaviour.

iv. Negative punishment – Ending good things /rewards when undesired behaviour is performed, such as stopping walking when a dog pulls on the lead, thus decreasing the likelihood of an undesired behaviour.

e) Behavioural training methods

i. Aversive methods. Methods that rely on positive punishment and / or negative reinforcement may be considered aversive. Such methods include shouting, tugging sharply on the lead, giving a painful electric stimulus (e-collar), and use / misuse of accoutrements placed on the dog, e.g., collars.

ii. Non-aversive methods. Methods that promote positive reinforcement and / or negative punishment have been termed non-aversive, humane, or reward-based. Such methods may include giving praise, food and/or play rewards when the dog performs a desired behaviour.

iii. Balanced training. Methods that combine non-aversive and aversive training to encourage desired behaviours.

f) Emotional response to training. Evidence of dogs’ emotional response to training is growing, for example aversive training methods can negatively impact dogs’ welfare through experience of pain, fear, and stress^5,6.

g) Training devices. A large selection of training devices is widely available. Guidance regarding their use is often through online videos and chat groups, less commonly through manufacturer publication. Those discussed in this paper include:

i. Ultrasonic collar. This device detects when the dog wearing it is barking, and then emits an ultrasonic noise to prevent barking. The ultrasonic noise automatically ceases when barking stops.

ii. Spray collar. Scentless, or citronella, spray collars are also used to prevent unwanted barking. Commonly used scented collars include those employing a 0.5% citronella essence spray. A microphone within the collar detects the dog’s bark, which triggers the release of citronella spray under the dog’s muzzle. The spray is designed to disrupt or deter barking by stimulating the dog’s hearing, smell, sight, and touch through pressurised scented spray and cooling through vaporisation of the propellant⁷.

iii. Automatic electronic collars. These collars are designed to be worn at times when unwanted barking is anticipated. The automatic collars deliver an electric shock when the dog barks.

iv. Vibration collars. Whilst many remote controlled or automatic electronic collars have a vibrate function, some collars only provide a vibration stimulus to the dog. These devices may be remotely operated, or bark activated and work by vibrating against the neck of the dog to discourage barking.

v. Prong, or pinch collars and choke chains. These devices apply pressure to the neck via tightening of a chain or through metal prongs. The principle behind their use is to apply distraction, discomfort or pain when the dog is showing undesirable behaviour, and for the user to release that stimulus when the dog performs the desired behaviour.

vi. Others.

• Clicker. Most often used to mark wanted behaviour and linked to positive reinforcement.
• French collar. A training collar with metal ring, attached to a cord, which maintains its position on the dogs neck due to a fitted toggle.
• Gencon slip, and clip lead. Dual use dog lead for both training and routine use.
• Target stick.
• Training Discs. Metal discs that can be used as a noise aversive. Dropped or rattled when the dog performs an unwanted behaviour.
• Figure of 8 headcollar. Often combined lead and headcollar, aim to reduce pulling.