Impacts of digital media use on children and young people's mental health and wellbeing: evidence review

Conclusion

The evidence presented in this review of international literature demonstrates that whilst there are associations between digital media use and mental health and wellbeing outcomes in children and young people, these relationships are not straightforward. Digital media use encompasses a range of technologies and activities, and evidence suggests that impacts are shaped by how it is used, who is using it, and the wider social contexts in which use occurs.

Existing vulnerabilities, relationships and wider social experiences appear to influence both engagement with digital media and its consequences. This suggests that digital media should not be understood as a direct cause of poor mental health and wellbeing, but as one factor operating within a wider range of personal and social circumstances that shape outcomes for children and young people.

6.1 Developmental stages

The literature demonstrates that associations between digital media use and wellbeing vary across developmental stages. During the early years, research primarily focuses on cognitive, language and behavioural development, whilst studies involving older children and adolescents more often examine emotional wellbeing and mental health outcomes.

As older children move into adolescence, digital media use typically increases and becomes more embedded in peer relationships, identity development and everyday life. Some age groups may derive particular benefits from digital media use, whilst others may be more vulnerable to specific harms. This echoes the theory that there are ‘windows’ of developmental sensitivity to social media (Orben et al., 2022). Developmental stage should therefore be considered when developing policies and interventions aimed at supporting children's and young people's wellbeing in digital environments,recognising that there are shifts in the nature of digital engagement and potential harms across childhood and adolescence.

6.2 Digital media use is not a singular experience

Measures of digital media use focused solely on screen time fail to capture the diversity of children’s and young people’s experiences of digital media (Maheux et al., 2025). Associations with mental health and wellbeing differ according to the platforms and content encountered, the purpose and pattern of engagement, and the wider circumstances in which use occurs. Different forms of digital media use therefore have different implications for wellbeing.

Among some age groups, certain forms of digital media use may provide benefits including the facilitation of offline friendships, social connection, identity development and access to information and support. These benefits may be particularly important for some groups of young people. Evidence distinguishing between active and passive use suggests that more socially engaged forms of use may be associated with more positive outcomes. However, qualitative research demonstrates that young people's digital experiences can blur distinctions between active and passive use.

At the same time, some patterns of engagement, including very high levels of use, were associated with poorer outcomes in some studies. Several studies suggested a ‘Goldilocks’ effect, where moderate levels of digital media use may be associated with more positive outcomes than very high or low levels of use. Recent research has also suggested that problematic use, characterised by excessive and compulsive use and more consistently linked to adverse outcomes, should be considered as a target for intervention (Tølbøll, 2026). These findings suggest that policy responses should account for how older children and young people use and experience digital media, including efforts to address harmful online experiences and exposures, rather than screen time alone.

6.3 Harms are diverse and shaped by wider factors

The literature has shown that digital media use is associated with diverse harms. For older children and young people, these include exposure to harmful content or experiences such as cyberbullying. Adverse impacts on mental health and wellbeing can also manifest through specific experiences and responses to digital media. These include fear of missing out, preoccupations or worries about digital media use, and body image concerns. Such experiences may influence wellbeing directly, whilst also interacting with existing vulnerabilities. Overall, the literature suggests that what older children and young people do online may be more important than how long they spend on screens.

Importantly, the literature demonstrates that access to, engagement with and responses to digital media can vary across groups of older children and young people. Whilst some marginalised groups can find the opportunities afforded by digital media valuable, others can be vulnerable to particular harms. The review found evidence that existing vulnerabilities may influence digital media use as much as digital media use influences wellbeing outcomes, suggesting that these relationships are bidirectional rather than causal. As such, digital media should not be understood as a direct cause of poor mental health and wellbeing outcomes among older children and young people, but as one factor operating within a wide range of personal and social contexts.

A large number of studies identified stronger associations with adverse outcomes among girls, particularly in relation to problematic use, cyberbullying and exposure to harmful content. Studies indicated that this is not explained by gender alone, but reflects differences in girls’ online experiences and exposures.

This suggests that policies addressing digital harms may need to include targeted approaches for groups of older children and young people who are more susceptible to particular online risks.

6.4 Limitations of the evidence base

Overall the evidence identifies a range of harms associated with digital media use, but also suggests potential benefits of certain forms of use among some age groups, and in some studies small or no measurable effects. This variation, alongside methodological limitations within the literature, should be considered when interpreting findings and developing policy responses.

Although associations between digital media use and mental health and wellbeing are often reported, literature has shown that these are often small and can vary across studies. This may partly reflect methodological limitations, with many studies relying on self-reported data, sometimes by caregivers, which may not accurately represent digital media use. Further, studies adopt different measures of digital media engagement, often do not distinguish between types of digital media use or online platform, and use varying definitions of screen time and problematic use. Additionally, the majority of studies are cross-sectional, limiting the ability to examine causality. Longitudinal studies in this review generally reported weaker associations between digital media use and mental health and wellbeing than cross-sectional studies.

Better understanding of the direction and causality of associations between digital media use and mental health and wellbeing requires longitudinal and mixed-methods research, alongside experimental methods and evaluation of policy change (Orben et al., 2026). Research should continue to move beyond measures of screen time alone to examine engagement with different content and platforms, purpose of use, and factors that shape vulnerability and resilience amongst groups of older children and young people. More Scottish research would better reflect the social, cultural and policy context in Scotland. Meaningful involvement of children and young people in the development of the evidence base and policymaking is vital, to ensure it reflects their lived experiences in rapidly changing digital environments.

6.5 Preventing harm

Although protective factors were not a primary focus of the literature search, several studies identified factors that may help mitigate some of the potential harms associated with digital media use. These were physical activity, digital literacy and supportive family and peer relationships. The literature suggests that supportive communication and engagement with young people may be more of a protective factor than restrictive monitoring. Such factors may help older children and young people navigate online environments more safely, develop a critical understanding of digital media, and equip them to respond when harmful situations arise. These actions can help foster digital resilience (Welsh Government, 2024).

While some protective factors operate at the level of individuals and families, young people themselves also highlighted the influence of technology companies and government. This suggests that reducing harm and promoting positive wellbeing in digital environments is likely to require action at multiple levels.