An Evaluation of Legacy from the Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games: Post Games Report

3. Economic Legacy

3.1 This chapter sets out the evidence to date that helps answers the following question set out in the Pre Games Report:

What effect have the Games had on the economy, businesses, employment, training and volunteering?

3.2 The Scottish Government and Glasgow City Council included making the most of the economic opportunities of the Games in their early legacy plans of 2009. Under the ‘flourishing’ national legacy theme and ‘prosperous/international’ Glasgow legacy themes, maximising the contribution of the Games to economic outcomes concentrated on the potential in three broad areas: business; labour market; and tourism and major events.

3.3 The economic impact of preparing for and hosting the Games was also hoped to contribute to economic recovery at a national and city level. This chapter presents the evidence on the economic impact of the event, and emerging evidence on potential longer term impacts on business, labour market and tourism and major events.

The wider evidence base

3.4 The updated evidence review that accompanies this report suggests that major events can leave economic legacies^[12]. The review distinguishes between short term effects and long term effects. Overall, the review finds the available evidence for longer term economic legacy to be limited. Shorter term economic impacts of major events have typically been found in certain sectors - construction, hospitality and tourism, and at certain points in time over the course of preparing for and delivering the event.

3.5 Such shorter term impacts can vary widely between different major events depending on each event’s specific circumstances, for example, the extent to which major construction of new venues is required. Shorter term economic impacts are common, though not automatic in all sectors, nor necessarily uniformly positive. For example, while short term increases in tourism have been found, experience varies widely between events. Over-estimation of the potential impact of major events on visitor numbers is common and displacement of regular tourists is a recognised issue in the literature.

Business

3.6 The evidence review describes a mixed picture in terms of business legacies of previous major events. In the short term, increases in economic activity related to preparing for and hosting major multi-sports events can provide significant new opportunities for a range of businesses, including Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). On the other hand, the review cites evidence of some negative effects on certain businesses during games time if they suffer from local transport disruption and displacement of their usual customer base.

3.7 Over the longer term, the effects on businesses have been found in some cases to be more significant for the host city or region, rather than the national economy. Longer term business legacies have been found where the event leads to the development of specific sectors of the economy. Other pathways for longer term business legacy are improved international perception of the host area as a place to do business, and improved productivity related to infrastructure improvements associated with events – in particular, transport improvements.

Labour Market

3.8 There is evidence that previous major sporting events have created a boost to employment in the run up to, and during, the event. Evidence from previous events suggests, however, that employment opportunities may not be evenly distributed with opportunities tending to go to those who already have required skills. However, there is some evidence that, if effectively targeted as part of deliberate efforts to extend potential benefits, employment opportunities can reach the long-term unemployed, including those in the host areas.

3.9 Evidence suggests positive effects from volunteering as a result of the Games are possible. People who volunteer in major events often report an intention to volunteer again and report learning new skills and gains in confidence.

3.10 There is, however, a body of evidence which suggests that those who gain volunteering positions at major sporting events tend to be those who already have key skills and tend to be regular volunteers at other events. Some commentators note that if a legacy objective is to engage more disadvantaged groups, volunteering programmes should be designed with extra training, funding and associated qualifications.

Tourism and Events

3.11 The updated review cites evidence for a short-term boost to tourism spending, and to tourism numbers over the wider period of the event. A fall in visitor numbers has, however, been observed during some events. This was the case in London 2012 where fewer tourists actually visited the city, but those who did visit spent a significantly higher amount than average. The evidence also suggests the risk of event visitors ‘crowding out’ usual visitors is higher in peak season, and in countries where there is already strong tourist demand.

3.12 While there is little evidence of a long-term boost to tourism as a result of hosting major events, some cities and nations have experienced a boost to their reputation and profile. There is often an increase in the reputation of the host city as a result of a major sporting event. Nevertheless, the impact is not always positive. The evidence cites the potential for a negative impact on the image of a city or region if the event is not seen as a success, or if it highlights a perceived weakness.

3.13 In summary, there is a lack of evidence on whether a long-term economic legacy is plausible. What evidence there is tells us that a step change to economic participation, productivity or international reputation is required. The evidence suggests that Games-related activities can help increase labour market participation, by helping local people to gain skills and experience. Major events can, in theory, help boost productivity over the long-term by increasing business capacity and networks, but there is very limited long term research to establish whether this has happened in practice. Finally, the evidence shows that some host cities experience a boost to international reputation.

Glasgow 2014 Legacy Programmes and Investments

3.14 Figure 3.1 below presents a distillation of key activities around economic legacy, their outputs and the outcomes to which these interventions are intended to contribute. The key activities relate to both the successful delivery of a well-attended event and to legacy programmes designed by partners to leverage long term and widespread economic benefit from the Games.

Figure 3.1. Key Economic Legacy Interventions

3.15 The prospective assessment in the Pre Games Report was that the XX Commonwealth Games would make a short term contribution to the economy in Scotland and Glasgow. If targeted effectively, it was also thought possible that employment opportunities could reach the long term unemployed.

Evidence to date on Games effect

Economic impact of preparing for and delivering Games

3.16 The Pre Games Report presented estimates from early modelling work on the impact of the Games related capital programme of construction and refurbishment of Games venues and the Athletes’ Village. These estimates have been revised to remain consistent with other elements of the event economic assessment. Full details of the revisions are in the accompanying Economic Assessment Technical Report.

Figure 3.2. SSE Hydro at Games Time

Getty Images

3.17 Final modelling, using the SG Input-Output framework, shows the £530 million investment of the Games related capital programme over the six years to 2014 is estimated to have supported, in gross terms, on average 1,100 jobs and contributed £50 million to Scotland’s GVA in each year. Of this, the capital programme is estimated to have supported on average 600 jobs in Glasgow and contributed £30 million to Glasgow’s GVA in each year.

3.18 The SG Input-Output Framework was also used to estimate the employment and GVA impacts of activities of the Glasgow 2014 Organising Committee to deliver the Games event. Audit Scotland report the cost of delivering the Games event was £543 million. This includes £70 million contribution to the Games capital programme. To avoid double counting, this £70 million has been netted from the cost of delivering the Games, therefore, the sum modelled was £473 million.

3.19 The final modelling finds the £473 million spend by the Organising Committee over the eight years to 2014 to deliver the Games event is estimated to have supported, in gross terms, on average 900 jobs and contributed £40 million to Scotland’s GVA in each year. Of this, the spend is estimated to have supported on average 500 jobs in Glasgow and contributed £20 million to Glasgow’s GVA in each year.

3.20 Finally, primary data from the Games Time Visitor Survey has been used to estimate the economic impact of visitors to the Games. The economic impact of spending by visitors, volunteers and media is estimated to have supported, in gross terms, 3,575 jobs and contributed £124 million to Scotland’s GVA in 2014. Of this, at the Glasgow level, the spending by visitors, volunteers and media supported, in gross terms, the equivalent of 2,075 jobs and contributed £63 million to Glasgow’s GVA in 2014.

3.21 A net impact of the economic impact of Games visitors, accounting for displacement and deadweight, has also been estimated. At the Scotland level, the spending by visitors, volunteers and media associated with Glasgow 2014 and Festival 2014 supported, in net terms, the equivalent of 2,138 jobs and contributed £73 million to Scotland’s GVA in 2014. Of this, at the Glasgow level, the spending by visitors, volunteers and media associated with Glasgow 2014 and Festival 2014 supported, in net terms, the equivalent of 1,227 jobs and contributed £37 million to Glasgow’s GVA in 2014.

3.22 In total, therefore, the preparation for and delivery of the XX Commonwealth Games is estimated to have contributed, in gross terms, £740 million to Scotland’s GVA over the eight year period from winning the bid in 2007 to hosting the Games in 2014. On average, at the Scotland level, 2,100 jobs are estimated to have been supported in each year, with a clear peak in 2014.

3.23 Of this, at the Glasgow level, the preparation for and delivery of the XX Commonwealth Games is estimated to have contributed, in gross terms, £390 million to Glasgow’s GVA over the eight year period from the winning of the bid in 2007 to the hosting of the Games in 2014, and to have supported on average 1,200 jobs in each year.

3.24 Audit Scotland, in their third report on the Games^[13], recognised the difficulty in assessing value for money of the overall benefits of the Games and the wider legacy activity. This is related to the issue identified in chapter three above, that successful legacies are embedded in existing strategies, policies and programmes. This makes generating a counterfactual for what would have happened in the absence of the Games and related legacy activity challenging.

3.25 Nevertheless, it is possible to make an indicative assessment of value for money of delivering the Games event.^[14] This has been done by comparing the impact of delivering the Games with a counterfactual where it is assumed that monies financing the delivery of the Games would have been spent in Scotland as final demand.^[15]

3.26 The results of this analysis suggest at the Scotland level, the immediate economic impact of the delivery of the Games is broadly similar to the impact of Games partners’ contributions if they were instead spent as standard government expenditure. The net additional economic impact derived from Games visitors is offset by the higher economic activity impact of standard government expenditure (compared to the public spending to support the Games).

3.27 At the Glasgow level, it is estimated that the Games provided a cumulative net GVA impact of £100 million to the economy in the city. This is driven by both net visitor impact and additional spending in Glasgow by the Scottish Government. Further details on this analysis are in the accompanying Economic Assessment Technical Report.

3.28 These estimates capture the economic impact up to 2014. There will also be a longer term economic impact from the investment in Games related infrastructure. For example, as mentioned later in this chapter, 45 national and international events have been secured to date using the Games infrastructure, with an estimated economic impact of over £18.5 million. This refers only to events in Commonwealth Games sports and/or in Games venues. Games related infrastructure, and an enhanced capacity and reputation for hosting events, is likely to have also boosted the economic impact of the wider events sector in Glasgow and Scotland.

Games contribution to business, labour market and tourism outcomes

Business

3.29 Increasing the growth of Scottish businesses by ensuring they were in a position to take advantage of opportunities presented by the Games was a key focus of legacy activity at national and city levels. This activity was broadly of two types: support to Scottish and Glasgow based business to win Games related contracts and networking events and business conferences.

3.30 The Glasgow Business Portal was established by Glasgow City Council in 2009. The on-line portal brought together contractors and suppliers by providing the opportunity for businesses of all sizes to register interest in, and then compete for, Games-related contracts.

3.31 Companies were also offered support to register and get ‘Business Ready’ through the GCC Buyer Engagement Team. The Supplier Development Programme helped companies to attain the necessary documentation (insurance, health and safety documentation). Registered companies were also invited to ‘Meet the Buyer’ sessions where they could get time to network with contractors to better understand their business requirements.

3.32 In 2008, GCC introduced Community Benefit Clauses into the tendering process for Commonwealth Games related projects, allowing for the scoring of potential contractors’ bids on the basis of the economic and social benefits the bidder could offer for residents and businesses. These clauses, for example, ensured sub-contracts were advertised, widening opportunities to firms who might not otherwise had a chance to bid. By applying Community Benefit Clauses, Glasgow City Council also ensured 500 jobs were secured on Games-related contracts for New Entrant Trainees, that is, those leaving education or who were previously long-term unemployed.

3.33 Following the Games and the completion of Games-related contracting, the Portal was merged with the Scottish Government’s Public Contract Scotland (PCS) on the 10th November 2014. This was to facilitate a long term impact of the Glasgow Business Portal and ensure that registered users are able to compete for public sector contracts across Scotland in the long term.

3.34 At the time of transferring the Portal to Public Contracts Scotland the Portal had 22,565 registered users, 20% (4,408) of which were Glasgow-based and a further 38% (8,501) of which were based elsewhere in Scotland. Of the 756 Commonwealth Games related contracts and sub-contracts awarded through the Portal, 182 (24%) were won by Glasgow-based companies and a further 313 (41%) by businesses based elsewhere in Scotland.

3.35 In terms of contract values, £669 million worth of Tier 1 contracts were awarded^[16], with £423 million (63%) awarded to Glasgow-based companies and a further £87 million (13%) to businesses based elsewhere in Scotland, bringing the national total to £510 million (76% of total value).

3.36 Business legacy activity around networking events and conferences was led by a range of city and national partners throughout 2014. Key events included the Commonwealth Games Business Conference – attended by over 320 business CEOs and political leaders from across the Commonwealth – and Scotland House^[17], the business element of which attracted over 1,000 attendees including national and international business leaders.

3.37 Attendees at these events rated them highly and perceived them to provide opportunities for their businesses in the future^[18]. It is, however, difficult to attribute any long term change in business activity to such networking interventions. An evaluation of Scotland Welcomes the World events^[19] found any direct short term economic impacts resulting from businesses attending these events were modest. The immediate benefits that were found centred on the ‘Meet the Buyer’ Showcasing Scotland Food and Drink event which provided direct opportunities for business to be transacted. A majority of the 150 companies surveyed in the evaluation, however, envisaged opportunities for new business to occur down the line as a result of attending the events.^[20]

3.38 The evidence review suggests enhanced Games related infrastructure – including planned transport improvements accelerated due to Games – can help businesses increase their ability to operate on wider scales more quickly. Construction of the M74 completion project in particular is likely to be critical in terms of enhanced business capacity in Glasgow and the West of Scotland. The M74 completion was delivered in 2011 as one of Transport Scotland’s essential infrastructure commitments to the 2014 Games.^[21]

3.39 Finally, the evidence review also highlights the risk of negative effects on business in the short term, in particular around Games time, if businesses suffer from local transport disruption or displacement of their usual customer base during the event. Glasgow City Council had a deliberate policy of promoting the City as ‘open for business’ during the Games. Key live sites and Festival 2014 locations were in the city centre – in Glasgow Green, Merchant City and Kelvingrove Park. In addition, the Get Ready Glasgow programme^[22] was designed to proactively engage with residents and businesses in the city to ensure they had the information they required to plan ahead for any impact of the Games.

3.40 There is some evidence that this policy had the desired effect of averting the risk of displacement of business’s usual customer base in Glasgow City Centre during Games time. During the Games, footfall in Glasgow’s shopping areas rose by 21.9 per cent compared to the same period last year. Footfall across Scotland also grew by 13.8 per cent during the Games period. The monthly Scottish Retail Consortium Footfall and Vacancy Monitor reported a 4.4 per cent increase in footfall in Scotland during July 2014 compared to the same month in the previous year.^[23] Other factors, including the weather, affect footfall rates, though given the evidence presented elsewhere in this chapter on additional visitors attracted, it is likely the Games contributed to these footfall increases.

3.41 Longer term impacts may arise from any reputational enhancement to Scotland and Glasgow as places to do business. This is addressed in chapter five.

Labour Market

3.42 The literature suggests major events can create short term boosts in employment, though opportunities do not necessarily reach those who could benefit most. Evidence that a boost to employment did occur in relation to the construction and operational activity required to deliver the Games in Glasgow is presented in the section on economic impact above.

3.43 The wider context shows an improvement in the labour market in Scotland and Glasgow in recent years. Long term unemployment and youth unemployment remain higher in Glasgow than the Scotland average. Games partners developed programmes to ensure any Games related employment boost benefitted groups who need most support getting back into the jobs market. The potential of the Games to support skills development and employability initiatives to reduce distance from the labour market, especially for young people, was also deliberately harnessed.

3.44 In total, it is estimated that over eleven thousand young people across Scotland have benefitted to date from the range of national and city employability legacy initiatives. This includes the results of considerable effort made by Glasgow City Council to use the Games to contribute to employment legacy outcomes which are estimated to have reached over 5,700 people in Glasgow alone since 2009.

3.45 Table 3.1 below lists the key initiatives, their target group and the numbers of people reached.

Table 3.1. Employability Legacy Initiatives

Initiative	Target	Reach
Commonwealth Apprenticeship Initiative (Glasgow)	School leavers	3,600
Commonwealth Jobs Fund (Glasgow)	Unemployed 18-24; 50+; veterans	962
Commonwealth Youth Fund (Glasgow)	Young unemployed[24]	364
Commonwealth Graduate Fund (Glasgow)	Unemployed graduates	826
Scotland’s Best (Scotland)	Unemployed 16-24	1228
Employer Recruitment Incentive (Scotland)	16-19 targeted[25]	1507
ScotGap (Scotland)	FE & HE students	2659
Host Broadcaster Training Initiative (Scotland)	FE & HE Students	600
Total		11,746

Source: Glasgow City Council & Skills Development Scotland

3.46 Most of the Glasgow employability programmes have been aimed at young people, with the largest programme – the Commonwealth Apprenticeship Initiative – reaching 3,600 school leavers since its launch in 2009. Given its scale, it is likely this apprenticeship programme has contributed to the increase in school leavers reaching sustained positive destinations^[26] in Glasgow since 2009 – up 7 percentage points from 78% in 2009 to 85% in 2014.

3.47 Some of the labour market initiatives took advantage of niche opportunities presented by the Games that were unlikely to have arisen in any other way. For example, the Host Broadcaster Training Initiative (HBTI) offered practical training in live broadcast, creative production and technical skills to over 600 students in Scotland, 208 of whom gained work experience during the Games. A HBTI Talent Pool has subsequently been established for the alumni of the initiative to continue to build connections to employment in broadcasting. The growth of the events industry in Scotland discussed below provides potential future opportunities for HBTI graduates.

3.48 The Department for Work and Pensions developed a strategy to leverage the Games related employment boost to reach unemployed people. This involved matching claimants with the skills and aspiration to work at the Games with advertised vacancies in the following ways: two jobs fairs in early 2014 attended by over 3,000 job seekers and direct liaison with 18 employers advertising 8,395 vacancies across security, hospitality, catering, waste, transport, logistics and event management.

3.49 Given the data on estimated jobs supported by the Games presented above, the clear peak of those jobs supported in 2014^[27], and the efforts described above to leverage this to the benefit of unemployed people, it is possible the Games and related legacy programmes contributed to the growth in employment^[28] and reduction in claimant count^[29] in Glasgow in 2014. Wider trends including improving labour market conditions and the impact of welfare reforms will, however, clearly be the most critical factor in this picture.

3.50 Further, there is some evidence that employment benefits reached the host community of the East End. Sweep 2 of the GoWell East survey found one in ten households were impacted in one or more ways (new employment or additional hours worked) by the Games event itself. Further detail on the economic impacts of the Games on the East End community longitudinal cohort are presented in chapter 7.

3.51 Volunteering is often conceived of as a further route to reducing distance from the labour market for those out of work. However, the limited literature on volunteering at major sporting events suggests mainstream volunteering programmes associated with major sporting events tend to recruit those who already have key skills, have volunteered in the recent past and who are drawn to the excitement of volunteering at a major event, rather that necessarily volunteering for skills development or broader community benefit per se.

3.52 Research by the Glasgow Centre for Population Health on Clyde-sider volunteers suggests the volunteer profile and motivation of Clyde-siders fits that of a typical major event volunteer, suggested in the wider literature^[30]. Follow up post-Games research with applicants who went on to become Clyde-siders found them to be broadly more positive about the experience in terms of the excitement of a big event and the potential for ‘giving back’, rather than skills development, which is unsurprising given they broadly represent an already highly skilled group^[31] (see also chapter 7). Nevertheless, the majority of Clyde-sider respondents said they developed skills, at least to some extent, as a result of volunteering at the Games, with skills in teamwork, communication and listening mentioned most.

3.53 Aware of the potential financial obstacles to volunteering at the Games, partners established the Volunteer Support Pot (VSP) - a fund of £625,000 to support Clyde-siders and Ceremonies’ volunteers at the Games. The funding, provided by the Big Lottery and Spirit of 2012 and administered by Volunteer Scotland, was used to help volunteers resident in the UK who were facing hardship or exceptional costs associated with rurality, low income, caring responsibilities or disabilities.

3.54 An evaluation of the VSP by the University of Strathclyde found Volunteer Scotland assessed 2,632 applications and allocated £555k to 2,177 individuals. It also provided free accommodation to 186 volunteers. 66% of beneficiaries were low income, 30% were from remote/rural areas, 3% had a caring responsibility and 1% had a disability. More than half (58%) of respondents felt that the VSP had a ‘significant’ or ‘major’ impact on their ability to volunteer.

3.55 In terms of lessons for the future, the evaluation of the VSP concluded the impact of such volunteer assistance programmes would be enhanced if funds were used not just to retain volunteers who had already applied to volunteer at the Games, but also to attract those put off applying due to the cost. Planning and promotion would need to be fully integrated into volunteer recruitment and selection to achieve greater inclusion.

3.56 Beyond the official Clyde-sider programme, there were other opportunities to take part in Games related volunteering. Aware of the research on mainstream major event volunteering programmes, and of specific efforts made to widen volunteering opportunities during the Manchester 2002 Commonwealth Games, Glasgow Life developed the Host City Volunteer (HCV) programme on behalf of GCC. The programme aimed to recruit volunteers who would provide a welcome to visitors to the city and provide information on the various cultural and sporting activities going on. Around 1200 people who live, work or volunteer in Glasgow were recruited as Host City Volunteers with specific efforts made to recruit from groups typically under-represented in volunteering.

3.57 Data on the Host City Volunteer programme suggests some success in recruiting from a wide range of demographic and socio-economic groups. Equality monitoring data from the OC and Glasgow Life shows while both sets of volunteers were broadly similar in terms of age profile (with both programmes volunteers spread across all age groups) there were more volunteers with a disability amongst Host City Volunteers compared to Clyde-siders (15% compared to 4%) and more Host City Volunteers from an ethnic minority background compared to Clyde-siders (23% compared to 6%).

3.58 Directly comparable data on socio-economic background between Clyde-siders and Host City volunteers are not available.^[32] ACORN^[33] postcode analysis was carried out on Host City Volunteers, and found 38% were categorised as ‘hard pressed’.

3.59 The primary aim of the HCV programme was not to increase employability. Nevertheless, HCV respondents to a post Games survey conducted by the Glasgow Research Partnership indicated increased confidence was one of the key gains from their experience (77% agreed).^[34]

3.60 Indeed, it is important to note that the aims of the national and city level legacy programmes on volunteering were wider than concerns around employability or reducing distance from the labour market. Aims included increasing civic engagement and pride and engagement with the Games as well as increasing the propensity to volunteer in the future. Further detail on the civic engagement impact of Games related volunteering programmes is in chapter 5.

3.61 In summary, the economic impact work shows the Games did provide a short term boost to employment, and it is plausible the Games contributed to the increase in employment in Glasgow in 2014. Further, there is evidence of reach of both employability programmes and Games related employment opportunities to long term unemployed people, young unemployed people and householders in the East End of Glasgow.

3.62 Wider economic forces clearly play the biggest role in labour market trends, but the evidence above suggests that events can be leveraged to provide a boost and that benefits can be extended if deliberate programmes are put in place. More detail on the short and longer term impact of the extensive Games related volunteering is in chapter five on civic engagement.

Tourism and Events

3.63 The Visitor Impact Study survey also gives some insight into the potential longer term impacts of the Games on tourism. Survey results indicate that amongst those who were on an overnight trip, 31% were on their first visit to Glasgow while 13% were on their first visit to Scotland.

3.64 Visitors were asked if they were likely to return to Glasgow in the next five years. 57% of visitors who lived outside of Glasgow stated that they would ‘definitely’ return to the city in the next 5 years. Focusing on those visitors who had not been to Glasgow before, 32% of these visitors stated that they would definitely return to the city in the next 5 years.

3.65 The Visitor Study also gives some insight into the reach of benefit from visitors. Respondents who had stayed overnight during their trip were asked to specify where they had stayed during their trip. As might be expected, the largest proportion (50%) spent one or more nights in Glasgow, and 17% stayed in Edinburgh. What is notable is that overnight visitors to the Games reported stays in every Local Authority area in Scotland, suggesting all of Scotland enjoyed some benefit from Games visitors.

3.66 While these figures give some indication of future intention to visit amongst Games visitors, including first time visitors, the literature suggests any longer term impact on tourism in Glasgow and Scotland will rely, at least partly, on a change in international perception.

3.67 Scotland’s reputation as a tourist destination improved between 2012 and 2014, according to the Nation Brands Index. Scotland has seen an increase in both overall score (from 67.4 to 68.6) and relative rank (from 13th to 12th) in its reputation as a tourist destination compared to 2012. Key Commonwealth panel countries – Australia, Canada and South Africa – placed Scotland in their top ten countries internationally for tourism. Further evidence on the international reputation of Scotland in 2014 is presented in chapter 5.

3.68 Finally, partners have made deliberate efforts to use games venues and infrastructure, the developing event-related skills base and an international reputation for hosting major events to attract new events to Scotland and develop the events sector.

3.69 Some success on attracting events in Games venues was reported in the Pre Games Report. Updated figures indicate that to date, 45 national and international events have been secured, with an estimated economic impact of over £18.5 million. These include the World Gymnastics Championships 2015 at The SSE Hydro Arena and the IPC World Swimming Championships 2015 at Tollcross International Swimming Centre. The 2017 Badminton World Championships have also been secured, as have the European Sports Championship in 2018 (joint with Berlin) – the latter comprising the European Championships in swimming, gymnastics, cycling, triathlon, rowing and golf.