Asylum seekers - extending the right to work: evaluation, analysis, and policy options

This report sets out analysis and policy options which would extend the right to work to asylum seekers in Scotland, and reviews current UK Government policy about this topic.


References

Åberg, R. (2012). Svensk Arbetsmarknad mot Polarisering efter Millenieskiftet. Arbetsmarknad & Arbetsliv, 21(4), pp. 8–25.

Administration for Children and Families Office for Refugee Resettlement. (2022). Benefits and Services Available for Asylees Through HSS’ Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR).

Ager, A. and Strang A. (2004). ‘Indicators of Integration. Final Report’. Home Office Development and Practice Report 28.

Aleynikova, E. and Moseley, M. (2023). The Economic and Social Impacts of Lifting Work Restrictions on People Seeking Asylum, NIESR Discussion Paper No. 549

Asylum Information Database. (2022) Access to Socio-Economic Rights for Beneficiaries of Temporary Protection. European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Asylum Insight Facts and Analysis. (2021). The Legacy Caseload — Asylum Insight

Asylum Seeker Resource Centre. (2023). Policy Through Poverty: The impact of excluding people seeking asylum from mainstream social support. ASRC: Victoria.

Australian Government.(2023). Review of the Migration System. Department of Home Affairs.

Australian Government. (2018). Status Resolution Support Services (SRSS) Programme. Operational Procedures Manual. Department for Home Affairs.

Barthoma, S., Sivets, A., Rajon, A., Pettersson, J., Fritz, P., Rossi, A., Begemann, J. and Larsson, O. (2020). Reception Policies, Practices and Responses. Sweden Country Report. RESPOND Working Paper, Uppsala University.

Bauder, H. (2003). ‘Brain abuse,’ or the devaluation of immigrant labour in Canada. Antipode, 35:4, p. 699–717.

BertelsmannStiftung. (2020). Selbststandige mit Migrationshintergrund: Jobmotor fur Deutschland.

Berg, L., Dehm, S. and Vogl, A. (2022). Refugees and Asylum Seekers as Workers: Radical Temporariness and Labour Exploitation in Australia. UNSW Law Journal, 45(1), pp. 35 – 69.

Bevelander, P. and N. Irastorza. (2014). Catching Up: The Labor Market Integration of New Immigrants in Sweden. Washington, DC and Geneva: Migration Policy Institute and International Labour Office.

Bloch, A. (2008). Refugees in the UK Labour Market: The Conflict between Economic Integration and Policy-led Labour Market Restriction. Journal of Social Policy, 37(1), pp. 21-36.

Brell, C., Dustmann, C., & Preston, I. (2020). The Labor Market Integration of Refugee Migrants in High-Income Countries. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 34(1), pp. 94–121.

Broadhead, J. (2023). Building an Infrastructure for Community Led Welcome in the UK: Learning from the Mobilisation of the Homes for Ukraine Scheme. Inclusive Cities Policy Brief. COMPAS, University of Oxford.

Brűcker, H. Jaschke, P. and Y. Kosyakova. (2019). Integrating Refugees and Asylum seekers into the German Economy and Society: Empirical Evidence and Policy Objectives. Migration Policy Institute: Brussels.

Brücker, H., Kosyakova, Y., and Schuß, E. (2020). Integration in Arbeitsmarkt und Bildungssystem mach weitere Fortschritte. IAB-Kurzbericht No. 4.

Brücker, H., Kosyakova, Y. and Schuß, E. (2020a). “Fünf Jahre seit der Fluchtmigration 2015: Integration in Arbeitsmarkt und Bildungssystem macht weitere Fortschritte.” IAB-Kurzbericht. No. 4.

Bundesministerium fur Familie, Senoren, Frauen und Jungen. (2017). Engagement in der Fluchtlingshilfe.

Creese, G. and Wiebe, B. (2012). ‘Survival employment’: Gender and deskilling among African immigrants in Canada. International Migration, 50:5, pp. 56–76.

Canadian Citizenship and Immigration Resource Centre (2021). Refugee Protection. CCIRC: Montreal.

Carens, J. (2013). The Ethics of Migration, Oxford University Press: Oxford.

CBC News. (2023). Asylum seekers left sleeping on Toronto streets amid funding stalemate between city, feds.

CBC News. (2023). Quebec's social services under pressure from influx of asylum seekers: advocates.

Cheung. S., and J. Phillimore, J. (2016). Gender and Refugee Integration: A Quantitative Analysis of Integration and Social Policy Outcomes. Journal of Social Policy, 46(2), pp. 211-230.

Chishti, M., Gelatt, J., and Putzel-Kavanaugh, C.(2023). New York and Other U.S Cities Struggle with High Costs of Migrant Arrivals. Migration Policy Institute.

Connor, P. (2010). Explaining the Refugee Gap: Economic Outcomes of Refugees Versus Other Immigrants. Journal of Refugee Studies, 23(3), pp. 377-397.

Cornelissen, L., and Turcotte, M. (2020). Persistent overqualification among immigrants and non-immigrants.

Council on Foreign Relations. (2023). What Is Temporary Protected Status (TPS)?

Crawley, H. (2010) ‘Chance or Choice? Understanding why Asylum Seekers Come to the UK’, British Refugee Council.

De Jong, S. (2019). A window of Opportunity? Refugee staff’s employment in migrant

support and advocacy organizations. Identities, 26(3)., pp. 321-338.

Department of Home Affairs (2022). Onshore Processing Statistics, October 2022

Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities. (2022). Ukraine Sponsorship Scheme: Visa data by country, upper and lower tier local authority

Department for Work and Pensions. (2010). The department for work and pensions social cost-benefit analysis framework. Working Paper 86.

Degler, E. and Liebig, T. (2017). Finding their Way, Labour Market Integration of Refugees in Germany. OECD.

Dutch Council for Refugees. (2023a). Overview of the main changes since the previous report update. Netherlands. Asylum Information Database. European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Dutch Council for Refugees. (2023b). Access to the labour market. Netherlands. Asylum Information Database. European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Dutch Council for Refugees. (2023c). Forms and levels of material reception conditions. Netherlands Asylum Information Database. European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Dutch Council for Refugees. (2023d). Access to education. Netherlands. Asylum Information Database. European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Dyson, D., Roos-Walker, E., and Hannan, C. A. (2019). A systems approach to immigrant families and the labour market. H. Bauder (Ed.), Putting family first: Migration and integration in Canada UBC Press.

Emilsson, H. (2016). Recruitment to Occupations with a Surplus of Workers: The Unexpected Outcomes of Swedish Demand-Driven Labour Migration Policy. International Migration. 54(2).

Environics Institute. (2022). Canadian public opinion about immigration and refugees.

European Commission. (2015). Portugal: Brazilians to stop population shrinkage and contribute to labour market.

European Commission. (2015). The 2015 Ageing Report. Economic and Budgetary Projections for the 28 EU Member States (2023 – 2060). European Commission: Brussels.

European Commission. (2021). Portugal: The commitment to hosting refugees and migrants continues.

European Commission. (2023). Statistics on Migration to Europe. European Commission.

European Council. (2023). Asylum applications in the EU - Consilium

European Migration Network (2023), Annual Report on Migration and Asylum in Belgium

European Parliament (2015), Third Country Migration and European Labour Markets. Integrating Foreigners. European Parliament Briefing.

European Union Agency for Asylum. (2023). Latest Asylum Trends.

Expert Advisory Group on Migration and Population. (2019). Immigration policy and demographic change in Scotland: learning from Australia, Canada and continental Europe

Expert Advisory Group on Migration and Population. (2021). Family migration: understanding the drivers, impacts and support needs of migrant families

Expert Advisory Group on Migration and Population. (2022). Place-based policy approaches to population challenges: Lessons for Scotland

The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia. (2013-2014), Explanatory Memorandum, Migration and Maritime Powers Legislation Amendment (Resolving the Asylum Legacy Caseload) Bill 2014. The Parliament of the commonwealth of Australia, House of Representatives.

Fasani, F., Frattini, T., and Minale, L. (2020). Lift the Ban? Initial Employment Restrictions and Refugee Labour Market Outcomes, CEPR Discussion Papers 14765.

Fernández-Reino, M. and Rienzo, C. (2022). Migrants in the UK Labour Market: An Overview, The Migration Observatory, University of Oxford.

Frodin, O. and Kjellberg, A. (2018). Migration from Third Countries to Swedish Low-wage Jobs. Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies 8:1, pp. 65-85.

Fuller, S., and Martin, T. F. (2012). Predicting immigrant employment sequences in the first years of settlement. The International Migration Review, 46:1, pp. 138–190

Garelli, G., and Tazzioli, M. (2021). Migration and ‘Pull Factor’ Traps. Migration Studies, 9(3), pp. 383-399.

Government of Canada. (2023). Asylum claims by year – 2023.

Government of Canada. (2023). Claim refugee status from inside Canada: Work and study permits

Government of Canada. (2023). How long will it take for me to get the work permit under the accelerated process for asylum claimants?

Government of Canada (2023).News release: Canada doubles resettlement spaces for human rights defenders.

Government of Canada. (2022). CIMM – Federal Support for Asylum Seekers.

Government of Canada. (2022). Temporary public policy to exempt refugee claimants, in Canada, from certain requirements for open work permit issuance.

Gouvernement du Quebec. (2023). Asylum seekers.

Greater Manchester Combined Authority.(2023). Cost Benefit Analysis.

Glimer. (2020) Scotland Policy Brief 3: Improving labour market access for refugees in Scotland

Gower, M., McKinney, CJ. and Meade, L. (2022). Asylum seekers: the permission to work policy, House of Commons Library Research Briefing.

Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik, P., and Stiller, M. (2023a). Forms and levels of material reception conditions . Asylum Information Database, European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik, P., and Stiller, M. (2023b). Overview of the Main Changes Since the Previous Report Update

Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik, P., and Stiller, M. (2023c). Access to the Labour Market. Germany. Asylum Information Database, European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik, P., and Stiller, M. (2023d). Freedom of Movement. Germany. Asylum Information Database, European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik, P., and Stiller, M. (2023e). Reduction or withdrawal of reception conditions. Germany. Asylum Information Database, European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik, P., and Stiller, M. (2023f). Conditions in Reception Facilities. Germany. Asylum Information Database, European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik, P., and Stiller, M. (2023g). Types of Accommodation. Germany. Asylum Information Database, European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik, P., and Stiller, M. (2023h). Healthcare. Germany. Asylum Information Database, European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Home Office. (2021). Asylum Policy: Statement made on 8 December 2021, UK Parliament Written questions, answers and statements.

Home Office. (2023a). Asylum and Protection - Asylum seekers in receipt of support by Local Authority.

Home Office (2023b). Immigration system statistics data tables.

Hocking, D., Kennedy, G., and Sundram, S. (2015). Mental Disorders in Asylum Seekers: The Role of the Refugee Determination Process and Employment. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 203(1), pp. 28-32.

Holtom, D. and Iqbal, H. (2020). Refugee Employment and skills support study. GSR report number 20/2020. Cardiff: Welsh Government.

Hooper, K., Desiderio, M. V. and Salant, B. (2017). Improving the Labour Market Integration of Migrants and Refugees: Empowering Cities through Better Use of EU Instruments Migration Policy Institute Europe: Brussels.

Howe, J. et al. (2019). Towards a Durable Future: Tackling Labour Challenges in the Australian Horticulture Industry. University of Adelaide

Huddleston, T., Bilgili, O. and Vankova, Z. (2015). Migrant Integration Policy Index 2015. Barcelona/ Brussels: CIDOB and MPG.

Hurstfield, J., Pearson, R., Hooker, H., Ritchie, H. and Sinclair, A. (2004). Employing Refugees: Some Organisations’ Experiences, Brighton: Institute for Employment Studies.

Hvidtfeldt, C., Petersen, J. H. and Norredam, M. (2019). Prolonged Periods of Waiting for an Asylum Decision and the Risk of Psychiatric Diagnoses: A 22-Year Longitudinal Cohort Study from Denmark. International Journal of Epidemiology, 49(2), pp. 400-409.

Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. (2023). Recent trends.

Informationsvergie. (2023). Activities during the asylum application period.

Informationsvergie. (2023). Working during the asylum application period .

Karyotis, G., Mulvey, G. and Skleparis, D. (2021). Young Syrian refugees in the UK: a Two-Tier System of International Protection? Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 47(3), pp. 481-500.

Health Care Knowledge Centre (KCE). (2019). Asylum seekers: options for more equal access to health care. A stakeholder survey.

Kenny, M. et al,. (2020), Submission to the Joint Standing Committee on Migration. Inquiry into Migration in Regional Australia. Submission 55.

Kiss, M. (2022). Demographic Outlook for the European Union 2022. European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS).

Konle-Seidl, R. and Bolits, J. (2016). Labour Market Integration of Refugees: Strategies and good practices, European Parliament: Brussels.

Krahn, H., Derwing, T., Mulder, M. and Wilkison, L. (2000). Educated and underemployed: Refugee integration into the Canadian labour market. Journal of International Migration and Integration/ Revue de l’integration et de la migration internationale, 1:1, pp. 59 -84.

Kreisberg, A. N., de Graauw, E., and Gleeson S. (2022). Explaining Refugee Employment Declines: Structural Shortcomings in Federal Resettlement Support. Social Problems. Spab080.

Krock, M. and K. Bones. (2015). Australian Exceptionalism: Temporary Protection and the Rights of Refugees. Melbourne Journal of International Law, 16, pp.1-28

Kyambi. S. (2020). Ready Steady Go? Preparedness for the UK’s New Immigration System. Migration Policy Scotland.

Kyambi, S. and Kay, R. (2023). Attitudes to Immigration: A view from Scotland, Migration Policy Scotland.

Law Centre NI (2022) Work for asylum seekers Briefing 1: applying for permission to work

Leay, C., Lumbus, A., and Hartley, L. (2016). People Seeking Asylum in Australia and Their Access to Employment: Just What Do We Know?. Cosmopolitan Civil Societies Journal 8(2), pp. 63-83.

Luik, M. A., Emilsson, H. and Bevelander, P. (2018), The Male Immigrant–Native Employment Gap in Sweden: Migrant Admission Categories and Human Capital. Journal of Population Research. 35(4), pp. 363–398.

Marbach M., Hainmueller J., and Hangartner D. (2018). The Long-term Impact of Employment Bans on the Economic Integration of Refugees. Science Advances; 4(9): eaap9519.

Mayblin, L., and James, P. (2016). Is access to the labour market a pull factor for asylum seekers, Policy Briefing: 03/16.2, University of Warwick.

Mezzadra, S. (2004). ‘The Right to Escape’, Ephemera, 4 (3): 267-275.

Migration Advisory Committee (2021). Migration Advisory Committee: annual report, 2021.

Migrant Integration Policy Index. (2020). Key findings, Germany.

Migrant Integration Policy Index. (2020). Key Findings, Portugal.

Migrant Integration Policy Index. (2020). Key findings, Sweden.

Migrant Integration Policy Index. (2020). Policy Indicators: Key Findings.

Migrationsverket (The Swedish Migration Agency). (2023). Statistics on asylum applications.

National Audit Office. (2020). Home Office: Asylum accommodation and support. London: Dandy Booksellers Ltd.

Newman, A. et al. (2018). A Guide for Employers. Supporting access to employment for people from a refugee or asylum seeking background. Deakin, Monash and Australian National Universities.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2011). Recruiting Immigrant Workers: Sweden 2011. OECD Publishing.

OECD. (2016). Working Together: Skills and Labour Market Integration of Immigrants nd their Children in Sweden. OECD Publishing: Paris.

OECD. (2019a). Finding their way: The integration of refugees in Portugal.

OECD (2019b). International Migration Outlook 2019. OECD Publishing: Paris.

OECD/ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2018). Engaging with employers in the hiring of refugees

Office for National Statistics. (2021). Ethnicity pay gaps: 2019

Office for National Statistics. (2023). Projected Population of Scotland (2020-based)

Parkinson, M. et al (2023). Review of the Migration System. Final Report 2023. Australian Government, Department of Home Affairs.

Phillimore, J., Jamal, Z., Noubani, A., Hourani, J. and Baillot, H. (2022) Forced migration and sexual and gender-based violence: findings from the SEREDA project in Scotland. Birmingham: University of Birmingham.

Picot, G., Zhang, Y. and Hou, F. (2019). Labour market outcomes among refugees to Canada. IDEAS Working Paper Series from RePEc pp.1 - 33. Statistics Canada: Ottowa.

Portuguese Refugee Council. (2023). Country Report: Access to the labour market. Portugal. Asylum Information Database, European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Poutvaara, P. and D. Wech (2016). Integrating Refugees into the Labor Market – A Comparison of Europe and the United States. ifo DICE Report 14(4), pp. 32 – 43.

Public Accounts Committee (2023). The Asylum Transformation Programme. Seventy-Sixth Report of Session 2022–23 HC 1334 House of Commons.

Qvist, M. (2012). Styrning av lokala integrationsprogram: Institutioner, nätverk och professionella normer inom det svenska flyktingmottagandet. Linköping Studies in Arts and Science, No. 562. Linköping: Department of Social and Welfare Studies, Linköping University.

Refugee Action (2020). Lift the Ban: Why giving people seeking asylum the right to work is common sense

Refugee Council of Australia. (2023). Refugee Council welcomes plan to end cruel temporary protection policy.

Refugee Council. (2022). Thousands of people seeking asylum living in poverty. Refugee Council, Australia.

Refugee Council of Australia. (2022). Submission to the ‘Migration System for Australia’s Future’ Discussion Paper.

Reese, L. A., and Ye, M. (2011). Policy versus Place Luck: Achieving Local Economic Prosperity. Economic Development Quarterly, 25(3), pp. 221–236.

Reilly, A. (2018). The Vulnerability of Safe Haven Enterprise Visa Holders: Balancing Work, Protection and Future Prospects, University of New South Wales Law Journal 871, 41(3).

Reuters News. (2023). Canada shut its land border to asylum seekers. More refugees came anyway.

Righard, E., Emilsson, H. and T. G. Jensen. (2020). Integration into the Labour Market and Skills Training in Sweden. Malmo University: Malmo.

Right to Remain (2023) Asylum Support: financial support and Accommodation. Right To Remain Toolkit, July 2023.

Robertson, S. and A. Runganaikaloo. (2014). Lives in Limbo: Migration Experiences in Australia’s education-migration nexus. Ethnicities. 14(2), p. 208-226.

Robinson, V., and Segrott, J. (2002). Understanding the Decision-Making of Asylum Seekers, Home Office Research Study 243.

Ruiz, I. and Vargas-Silva, C. (2018) Differences in Labour Market Outcomes Between Natives, Refugees and Other Migrants in the UK. Journal of Economic Geography , 18(4), pp. 855–885.

Ruiz, I., and Vargas-Silva, C. (2021). What Works for Improving Refugee Outcomes in High-Income Countries? Policy Insights for the UK. COMPAS, University of Oxford.

Rutter, J., and Carter, R. (2018). National Conversation on Immigration, Final Report.

Scottish Refugee Council. (2021). New polling shows Scotland welcomes refugees - Scottish Refugee Council.

Scottish Government (2018a). New Scots Refugee Integration Strategy 2018 - 2022.

Scottish Government. (2018b). Fair Start Scotland Launch

Scottish Government. (2021). A Scotland for the future: opportunities and challenges of Scotland's changing population

Scottish Government (2022). Rural visa pilot proposal: September 2022.

Scottish Government (2023). Building a New Scotland: migration to Scotland after independence

Government of Germany (1993). Asylum Seekers’ Benefit Act, Section 2(1).

Sehic, A. and Vicol, D. (2023). Systemic Drivers of Migrant Worker Exploitation in the UK. Work Rights Centre.

Settlement Services International. (2016). Working it out. Occasional Paper 1 . SSI: Ashfield NSW.

Skills Development Scotland (2021). Apprenticeship Equality Action Plan. Final Report 2015-2021

Statistics Canada. (2023). Canada’s Population Estimates: Record-high population growth in 2022.

Stella, F. and Kay, R. (2023). Language learning and migrant ‘integration’ in Scotland: exploring infrastructure, provision and experiences. Final Project Report. Glasgow: University of Glasgow.

Stiller, M., and Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik, P. (2022). Country Report: Germany. European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Sturge, G. (2023). Asylum statistics, House of Commons Library Research Briefing, pp. 11.

Thielemann, E.R. (2004). Asylum Destination Choice What Makes Some West European Countries More Attractive Than Others? European Union Politics, 5(2), pp.155-180.

The European Anti-Poverty Network (2019), Poverty Report Sweden 2019. EAPN: Sweden.

The Guardian. (2023). In Australia’s severe rental crisis, asylum seekers are increasingly desperate for a place to live.

The Guardian. (2023). ‘Dutch by default’: Netherlands seeks curbs on English-language university courses. (last accessed October 2023).

The Scottish Parliament. (2020). Race Equality, Employment and Skills: Making Progress? Equalities and Human Rights Committee. SP Paper 584, 3rd report (Session 5).

Tjaden, J., and Heidland T. (2021). Does Welcoming Refugees Attract More Migrants? The Myth of the ‘Merkel’ Effect. Kiel Working Paper 2194. Kiel Institute for the World Economy.

Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse (2023), Immigration Court Asylum Backlog up to 30 September 2023.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and International Labour Office (2012). Labour Mobility for Refugees: Workshop in Geneva, 11–12 September 2012 – Summary Conclusions (Report, October 2012).

U.S Citizen and Immigration Services (2023). Asylum | USCIS

Van Selm, J. (2019). Migration in the Netherlands: Rhetoric and Perceived Reality Challenge Dutch Tolerance. Migration Policy Institute.

Vluchtelingenwerk Vlaanderen (2023a). Access to the labour market Asylum Information Database. European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Vluchtelingenwerk Vlaanderen. (2023b). Overview of the main changes since the previous report update. Asylum Information Database. European Council on Refugees and Exiles.

Vluchtelingenwerk Vlaanderen. (2023c). Health care. Belgium Asylum Information Database. European Council on Refugees and Exiles

Warman, C. et al. (2015). The portability of new immigrants’ human capital: Language, education, and occupational skills. Canadian Public Policy. Analyse de Politiques, 41(Supplement 1), S64–S79.

Wilkinson, L. and Garcea, J. (2017). The economic integration of refugees in Canada: a mixed record? Migration Policy Institute: Washington, DC.

Wise, P. (2022). Emigration and low growth fuel Portugal’s demographic crisis. Financial Times, 20 January.

World Bank. (2022). Refugee population by country or territory of asylum - Portugal. World Bank.

Wolffhardt, A., Conte, C., and Huddleston, T. (2019). The European benchmark for refugee integration: A comparative analysis of the national integration evaluation mechanism in 14 EU countries. Migration Policy Group: Brussels.

Contact

Email: population@gov.scot

Back to top